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The present review paper focuses on recent developments in edible films and coatings made of base compounds from biological sources, namely plants, animals, algae, and microorganisms. These sources include by-products, residues, and wastes from agro-food industries and sea products that contribute to sustainability concerns. Chitosan, derived from animal biological sources, such as crustacean exoskeletons, has been the most studied base compound over the past three years. Polysaccharides typically constitute no more than 3–5% of the film/coating base solution, with some exceptions, like Arabic gum. Proteins and lipids may be present in higher concentrations, such as zein and beeswax. This review also discusses the enrichment of these bio-based films and coatings with various functional and/or bioactive compounds to confer or enhance their functionalities, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-enzymatic properties, as well as physical properties. Whenever possible, a comparative analysis among different formulations was performed. The results of the applications of these edible films and coatings to fruit and vegetable products are also described, including shelf life extension, inhibition of microbial growth, and prevention of oxidation. This review also explores novel types of packaging, such as active and intelligent packaging. The potential health benefits of edible films and coatings, as well as the biodegradability of films, are also discussed. Finally, this review addresses recent innovations in the edible films and coatings industry, including the use of nanotechnologies, aerogels, and probiotics, and provides future perspectives and the challenges that the sector is facing.

The use of by-products as a source of bioactive compounds with economic added value is one of the objectives of a circular economy. The olive oil industry is a source of olive pomace as a by-product. The olive pomace used in the present study was the exhausted olive pomace, which is the by-product generated from the air drying and subsequent hexane extraction of residual oil from the olive pomace. The objective was to extract bioactive compounds remaining in this by-product. Various types of green extraction were used in the present study: solvent extraction (water and hydroalcoholic); ultrasound-assisted extraction; Ultra-Turrax-assisted extraction; and enzyme-assisted extraction (cellulase; viscoenzyme). The phenolic profile of each extract was determined using HPLC-DAD and the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC) were determined as well. The results showed significant differences in the yield of extraction among the different methods used, with the enzyme-assisted, with or without ultrasound, extraction presenting the highest values. The ultrasound-assisted hydroethanolic extraction (USAHE) was the method that resulted in the highest content of the identified phenolic compounds: 2.021 ± 0.29 mg hydroxytyrosol/100 mg extract, 0.987 ± 0.09 mg tyrosol/100 mg extract, and 0.121 ± 0.005 mg catechol/100 mg extract. The conventional extraction with water at 50 °C produced the best results for TPC and antioxidant activity of the extracts. The extracts from the USAHE were able to inhibit Gram-positive bacteria, especially Bacillus cereus, showing 67.2% inhibition at 3% extract concentration.

The micro- and nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds has resulted in a large improvement in the food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and agriculture industries. These technologies serve, on one side, to protect, among others, vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids, polyphenols, flavours, antimicrobials, colorants, and antioxidants, and, on the other hand, to control the release and assure the delivery of the bioactive compounds, targeting them to specific cells, tissues, or organs in the human body by improving their absorption/penetration through the gastrointestinal tract. The food industry has been applying nanotechnology in several ways to improve food texture, flavour, taste, nutrient bioavailability, and shelf life using nanostructures. The use of micro- and nanocapsules in food is an actual trend used mainly in the cereal, bakery, dairy, and beverage industries, as well as packaging and coating. The elaboration of bio capsules with high-value compounds from agro-industrial by-products is sustainable for the natural ecosystem and economically interesting from a circular economy perspective. This critical review presents the principal methodologies for performing micro- and nanoencapsulation, classifies them (top-down and/or bottom-up), and discusses the differences and advantages among them; the principal types of encapsulation systems; the natural plant sources, including agro-industrial by-products, of bioactive compounds with interest for the food industry to be encapsulated; the bioavailability of encapsulates; and the main techniques used to analyse micro- and nanocapsules. Research work on the use of encapsulated bioactive compounds, such as lycopene, hydroxytyrosol, and resveratrol, from agro-industrial by-products must be further reinforced, and it plays an important role, as it presents a high potential for the use of their antioxidant and/or antimicrobial activities in food applications and, therefore, in the food industry. The incorporation of these bioactive compounds in food is a challenge and must be evaluated, not only for their nutritional aspect, but also for the chemical safety of the ingredients. The potential use of these products is an available economical alternative towards a circular economy and, as a consequence, sustainability.

Two monoterpenoid lactones, loliolide (1) and epi-loliolide (2), were isolated from the crude dichloromethane extract of a microalga, Thalassiosira sp.). The structures of loliolide (1) and epi-loliolide (2) were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR analysis, as well as a comparison of their 1H or/and 13C NMR data with those reported in the literature. In the case of loliolide (1), the absolute configurations of its stereogenic carbons were confirmed by X-ray analysis, whereas those of epi-loliolide (2) were determined by NOESY correlations. Loliolide (1) and epi-loliolide (2) were tested for their growth inhibitory activity against two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212) and two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853) bacteria, as well as one clinical isolate (E. coli SA/2, an extended-spectrum β-lactamase producer-ESBL) and two environmental isolates, S. aureus 74/24, a methicillin-resistant (MRSA), and E. faecalis B3/101, a vancomycin-resistant (VRE) isolates. The results showed that none of the tested compounds exhibited antibacterial activity at the highest concentrations tested (325 μM), and both revealed low antioxidant activity, with ORAC values of 2.786 ± 0.070 and 2.520 ± 0.319 µmol TE/100 mg for loliolide (1) and epi-loliolide (2), respectively.

Fucus spp. seaweeds thrive in the cold temperate waters of the northern hemisphere, specifically in the littoral and sublittoral regions along rocky shorelines. Moreover, they are known to be a rich source of bioactive compounds. This study explored the valorization of Fucus spiralis through the extraction of bioactives and polysaccharides (PSs) for food applications and biostimulant use. The bioactives were extracted using microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG), where the condition of 300 W for 20 min resulted in the highest total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the extract. Cellular assays confirmed that the extract, at 0.5 mg/mL, was non-cytotoxic to HaCat cells. Polysaccharides (PSs) were extracted from the remaining biomass. The residue from this second extraction contained 1.5% protein and 13.35% carbohydrates. Additionally, the free amino acids and minerals profiles of both solid residues were determined. An edible film was formulated using alginate (2%), PS-rich Fucus spiralis extract (0.5%), and F. spiralis bioactive-rich extract (0.25%). The film demonstrated significant antioxidant properties, with ABTS and DPPH values of 221.460 ± 10.389 and 186.889 ± 36.062 µM TE/mg film, respectively. It also exhibited notable physical characteristics, including high water vapor permeability (11.15 ± 1.55 g.mm.m−2.day−1.kPa−1) and 100% water solubility. The residues from both extractions of Fucus spiralis exhibited biostimulant (BS) effects on seed germination and seedling growth. BSs with PSs enhanced pea germination by 48%, while BSs without PSs increased the root dry weight of rice and tomato by 53% and up to 176%, respectively, as well as the shoot dry weight by up to 38% and up to 74%, respectively. These findings underscore the potential of Fucus spiralis within the framework of a circular economy, wherein both extracted bioactives and post-extraction by-products can be used for sustainable agriculture and food applications.

Microalgae are a sustainable source of bioactive compounds and nutrients that do not compete with crops for arable land. Lobosphaera sp. was used to produce biodegradable films. Bioactive compounds, polysaccharides, and proteins were extracted from this microalga. The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC) of the bioactive-rich extract were determined, and its composition was analyzed for phenolics using LC-ESI-QqTOF-HRMS and for lipids using GC-FID. The cytotoxicity of this extract on Caco-2 cells was also assessed. Different types of films were produced based on alginate (2%) (film A) and alginate with polysaccharides-rich (PS-rich) extract (0.5%) (film B); PS-rich extract and bioactive-rich extract (0.25%) (film C); protein-rich (P-rich) extract (0.5%) (film D); and P-rich extract and bioactive-rich extract (film E). The antioxidant activity and physical parameters of the films, such as thickness, color, water vapor permeability, solubility, tensile strength (TS), and elongation at break (EAB), were determined. The TPC of the bioactive-rich extract was 1.07 ± 0.05 mg GAE/100 mg DW, and its antioxidant activity was 2.44 ± 0.27, 1.67 ± 0.15, and 11.90 ± 1.22 µmol TE/100 mg DW for ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC, respectively. The extract showed no cytotoxicity to gut cells at concentrations equal to or below 1.0 mg/mL. Film E obtained the best results for the antioxidant activity, 451.06 ± 14.68 and 212.81 ± 39.12 µM TE/mg film for ABTS and DPPH, respectively. In addition, the films enriched with the bioactive-rich extract (films C and E) presented antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes. These films controlled the mold and yeast growth in strawberries during a four-day storage at 25 °C. All films were completely soluble in water and hydroethanolic solutions but only partially solubilized in acetic acid (3%). TS and EAB were not significantly different among the films. It was possible to produce biodegradable films using microalga Lobosphaera sp. with good bioactivity and physical characteristics.

The search for sustainable and health-promoting food ingredients has positioned microalgae as promising candidates for the development of functional products. Haematococcus pluvialis, a unicellular green microalga, is the richest natural source of astaxanthin, a carotenoid with outstanding antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. In addition to astaxanthin, H. pluvialis provides high-value proteins, essential fatty acids, polysaccharides, and vitamins, which expand its potential applications in the food sector. This review compiles current knowledge on the biology and physiology of H. pluvialis, with emphasis on cultivation strategies, environmental stress factors, and biotechnological tools designed to enhance bioactive compound production. Advances in extraction and purification methods are also discussed, contrasting conventional solvent-based approaches with emerging green technologies. The integration of these strategies with biomass valorization highlights opportunities for improving economic feasibility and sustainability. Applications of H. pluvialis in the food industry include its use as a functional ingredient, natural colorant, antioxidant, and stabilizer in bakery products, beverages, meat analogs, and emulsified systems. Evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies reinforces its safety and effectiveness. Looking ahead, industrial perspectives point to the adoption of omics-based tools, metabolic engineering, and circular economy approaches as drivers to overcome current barriers of cost, stability, and regulation, opening new avenues for large-scale applications in food systems.

Haematococcus pluvialis and Porphyridium cruentum are red microalgae with high biotechnological potential due to their rich composition of bioactive compounds. However, their intense flavor limits their application in food products. This study evaluated the impact of fermentation with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (30 °C for 48 h; LAB-to-biomass ratio of 0.1:1; 106 CFU/mL) on the physicochemical and functional properties of H. pluvialis and P. cruentum biomasses. Particular attention was given to antioxidant activity (ABTS and ORAC assays), color, amino acid profiles, and volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles, all of which may influence sensory characteristics. Results demonstrated that non-fermented H. pluvialis exhibited significantly higher antioxidant activity (AA) than P. cruentum. After fermentation, H. pluvialis showed an ABTS value of 3.22 ± 0.35 and an ORAC value of 54.32 ± 1.79 µmol TE/100 mg DW, while P. cruentum showed an ABTS of 0.26 ± 0.00 and an ORAC of 3.11 ± 0.13 µmol TE/100 mg DW. Total phenolic content (TPC) of fermented H. pluvialis and P. cruentum was 1.08 ± 0.23 and 0.18 ± 0.026 mg GAE/100 mg DW, respectively. Both AA and TPC increased after fermentation. Fermentation also significantly affected biomass color. FTIR analysis showed intensification of protein and carbohydrate vibrational bands post-fermentation. GC-MS analysis of VOCs showed that P. cruentum contained 42 VOCs before fermentation, including trans-β-ionone, 4-ethyl-6-hepten-3-one, hexanal, and heptadienal, which are responsible for fishy and algal odors. Fermentation with Lb. plantarum significantly reduced these compounds, lowering trans-β-ionone to 0.1453 mg/L and eliminating 4-ethyl-6-hepten-3-one entirely. H. pluvialis contained 22 VOCs pre-fermentation; fermentation eliminated hexanal and reduced heptadienal to 0.1747 ± 0.0323 mg/L. These changes contributed to improved sensory profiles. Fermentation also induced significant changes in the amino acid profiles of both microalgae. The fermented biomasses were incorporated into vegan burgers made from chickpea, lentil, and quinoa. Color evaluation showed more stable and visually appealing tones, while texture remained within desirable consumer parameters. These findings suggest that Lb. plantarum fermentation is an effective strategy for improving the sensory and functional characteristics of microalgal biomass, promoting their use as sustainable, value-added ingredients in innovative plant-based foods.

Microalgae are a rich renewable source of a wide variety of bioactive compounds. This study focuses on seven microalgae—Limnospira sp., Dunaliella sp., Lobosphaera sp., Nannochloropsis sp., Odontella sp., Porphyridium sp., and Tetraselmis sp.— analyzing their nutritional compositions and the potential bioactivity of their hydroethanolic extracts obtained via ultrasound-assisted extraction. The total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and ORAC), as well as the antimicrobial activity of the extracts were determined. The protein content of the microalgae ranged from 22.9 ± 0.1 to 59.8 ± 1.6%, the fat content ranged from 5.3 ± 0.0 to 36.6 ± 0.0%, and the carbohydrates ranged from 24.0 ± 3.0 to 46.1 ± 1.0%. The highest contents of protein, fat, and carbohydrates were found in Limnospira sp., Nannochloropsis sp., and Lobosphaera sp., respectively. The TPC of the extracts varied between 0.53 ± 0.09 and 3.18 ± 0.53 mg GAE/100 mg DW. Antioxidant activity values ranged from 1.09 ± 0.15 and 2.85 ± 0.45 μmol TE/100 mg DW for ABTS, 0.25 ± 0.06 and 2.28 ± 0.06 μmol TE/100 mg DW for DPPH, and 2.37 ± 0.58 and 18.32 ± 1.00 μmol TE/100 mg DW for ORAC. The extract from Limnospira sp. exhibited the highest antioxidant activity and also showed notable antimicrobial effects. Meanwhile, the Nannochloropsis sp. extract demonstrated the strongest antimicrobial activity against most tested bacterial strains. Lipids were successfully extracted from Nannochloropsis sp. Furthermore, alginate and zein films incorporated with bioactive-rich extracts from Limnospira sp. and Nannochloropsis sp., along with the lipid-rich extract from Nannochloropsis sp., were developed. These films showed significant antioxidant activity and effective antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been documented as potential vitamin B12 producers and may constitute an exogenous source of cobalamin for the microalga Chlorella vulgaris, which has been described as being able to perform vitamin uptake. Hence, there is an interest in discovering novel B12-producing probiotic LAB. Therefore, the purpose of the current work was to perform a phenotype–genotype analysis of the vitamin B12 biosynthesis capacity of LAB isolated from C. vulgaris bioreactors, and investigate their probiotic potential. Among the selected strains, Lactococcus lactis E32, Levilactobacillus brevis G31, and Pediococcus pentosaceus L51 demonstrated vitamin B12 biosynthesis capacity, with the latter producing the highest (28.19 ± 2.27 pg mL−1). The genomic analysis confirmed the presence of pivotal genes involved in different steps of the biosynthetic pathway (hemL, cbiT, cobC, and cobD). Notably, P. pentosaceus L51 was the only strain harboring cobA, pduU, and pduV genes, which may provide evidence for the presence of the cobalamin operon. All strains demonstrated the capability to withstand harsh gastrointestinal conditions, although P. pentosaceus L51 was more resilient. The potential for de novo cobalamin biosynthesis and remarkable probiotic features highlighted that P. pentosaceus L51 may be considered the most promising candidate strain for developing high-content vitamin B12 formulations.