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The aim of this study was to assess turning and side kick strength in the context of gender and lateralisation. One hundred and ninety-seven kicks performed by nine elite International Taekwon-do Federation athletes were analysed: four males and five females. To record the force of the impact, a strain gauge platform padded with a training disc was used as a target to protect the participants from direct impact on a force plate mounted on a stable structure. On average, the side kick achieves higher strength than the turning kick ( p  < 0.001). Significant elements differentiating kick strength values are gender and type of kick. The results of our study indicate that gender and kick type, as well as body weight and height, have a significant influence on kick pressure force. The study revealed significant differences in strength values between side kicks and turning kicks, with side kicks generally showing greater strength. On average, this pattern remained consistent for all genders. There was a significant relationship between gender, body mass and height and the kick and its strength. On average, greater kick pressure force was achieved by males, but some females, after specialized training, are able to achieve greater values of this dynamic indicator compared to male athletes. Although side kicks show higher strength values, the turning kick dominates taekwon-do competitions. This suggests that factors beyond strength alone, such as speed and control, influence the choice of technique in the context of competition.

Background: Modern combat sports, including boxing, categorize participants by body mass to ensure fairness and safety. The effective mass, or the ability to maximize body mass during a punch, significantly impacts striking force. This study aims to explore the relationship between effective mass and striking force in lead jab and rear cross punches of boxers. Material and methods: Thirteen male boxers with an average body mass of 90.6 kg and average height of 184 cm participated. The study employed an AMTI MC12-2K force plate (AMTI, Watertown, MA, USA) and Noraxon Ultium EMG sensors (Noraxon, Scottsdale, AZ, USA) to measure impact force and acceleration. Each boxer performed five maximum-force strikes with both lead jab and rear cross techniques. Results: The rear cross punch generated significantly higher ground reaction force (1709.28 ± 486.62 N) compared to the lead jab (1182.56 ± 250.81 N). However, effective mass values were similar for both punches: lead jab (18.95 ± 5.29 kg, 21.51% of body mass) and rear cross (18.50 ± 5.56 kg, 21.04% of body mass). Higher body mass and longer training tenure positively correlated with higher effective mass. An inverse relationship was found between fist acceleration and effective mass. Conclusions: Effective mass plays a crucial role in punch biomechanics, with similar utilization between lead jab and rear cross punches despite the latter’s higher force. Training focused on optimizing body mass utilization and refining punch techniques can enhance punch effectiveness.

Background: Boxing, a globally popular combat sport, demands technical precision and powerful strikes at the same time. The kinetic assessment of straight punches, specifically the rear cross and lead jab, is crucial for understanding the biomechanical factors influencing punch effectiveness. This study aims to explore the kinetic properties of these punches in trained boxers, focusing on punch force, acceleration, and the concept of a proximal-to-distal pattern. Methods: Thirteen advanced-level male boxers (body weight 90.6 ± 19.2 kg, height 184.0 ± 7.4 cm, experience 9.5 ± 6.5 y) from local clubs participated in this study. Using a force plate and wireless IMU sensors, we recorded punch force and limb acceleration during the execution of rear-cross and lead-jab punches. Data analysis involved statistical tests to compare the kinetic differences (Mann–Whitney U-test) between the two punch types and assessment of the influence of body mass and training tenure on punch effectiveness (multiple regression analysis). Significant differences were observed between the rear cross and lead jab in terms of total ground reaction force (x¯ = 1709.28 N vs. x¯ = 1176.55 N), acceleration of the fist (x¯ = 94.33 m/s2 vs. x¯ = 66.07 m/s2), forearm (x¯ = 67.11 m/s2 vs. x¯ = 41.62 m/s2) and arm (x¯ = 88.40 m/s2 vs. x¯ = 81.36 m/s2), and target contact time (x¯ = 0.03 s vs. 0.02 s). The rear-cross punch exhibited higher kinetic values, indicating greater effectiveness. Additionally, body mass and training tenure were identified as significant factors influencing punch force (R2 score = 0.640). Conclusions: This study confirmed the biomechanical superiority of the rear cross over the lead jab in terms of generated force among trained boxers. The findings highlight the importance of coordination between each segment’s acceleration to generate a powerful strike. These insights are valuable for coaches and athletes in optimizing training strategies for boxing.

Introduction The three dimensional deformation of the spine in scoliosis is specific for a given child with regard to the number and length of curvatures, their degree of rotation and the size of the curvature angle. Early diagnosis of scoliosis in a clinical examination according to the Adams test depends on the correlation between the angle of trunk inclination (ATI) and the Cobb angle and the adopted diagnosis criterion. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the need to adopt different diagnostic criteria for ATI depending on the age and location of scoliosis. Moreover, the observed differences in the ATI/Cobb correlation became the basis for the proposal to introduce the concept of low, medium and high-rotated of curvature to the clinical description of scoliosis. Materials and methods The group consisted of 229 children who were first examined, aged 6 to 17 years, with an average age of -11.57 years (SD ± 3.26), with symptoms of idiopathic scoliosis. The correlation of the criteria for the diagnosis of scoliosis in the ATI 7° clinical trial with a Cobb angle of 10° three dimensional in the X-ray image was used to distinguish three types of curvature/scoliosis, i.e., low, medium and high rotation. The frequencies of each type were compiled for three age groups and three scoliosis locations. Moreover, the degree of vertebral rotation according to the Perdriolli (AVR) of curvature was correlated with the Cobb angle and ATI. A one-way logistic regression model was used to assess the effectiveness of scoliosis detection in children based on the measurement of the ATI angle alone and the measurement of both ATI and Cobb angles. Results Low-rotated curves were most often found in the age groups of 6–9 and 10–12 years in 65.6% and 71.4% of patients, respectively (p < 0.05). Medium-rotated curvatures were most common in the age group of 13–17 years – 51.6%. With regard to the localization of scoliosis, the low-rotated curvatures were significantly more frequently (p < 0.05) found in the lumbar and thoracolumbar spine. Moreover, the univariate regression model for ATI showed that we could detect scoliosis best by taking the cut-off point of 5° and the mathematically determined Cobb angle was 9.5°. Patients with ATI ≥ 7° had significantly higher AVR values ​​than those with ATI < 7°, and the ATI/AVR correlation was of average strength. Conclusion The specific morphology of the scoliotic curvature of the child’s spine may be manifested by the difference in the ATI/Cobb correlation depending on the location of the scoliosis and change with age. The curvatures of the scoliosis that form can be low, medium and high-rotated, and the low-rotated curvatures were most often found in the 6-9- and 10-12-year-old groups and in the lumbar and thoracolumbar section. To increase the rate of early diagnosis of scoliosis, the results suggest the need to adopt two ATI criteria for the diagnosis of scoliosis at screening, 5° for age of 6–12 years, and when asymmetry affects the lumbar and thoracolumbar section, and 7° for the remaining children.

Effective mass, the portion of an athlete’s mass contributing to a punch, is a key biomechanical factor influencing punching strength in boxing. This study examines its relationship with punch mechanics, impulse dynamics, and body composition, identifying techniques that maximize effective mass and enhance force transfer efficiency. Thirty trained male boxers performed jab, cross, lead hook, and rear hook punches while punching force and limb acceleration were measured using an AMTI MC12-2K force plate and Noraxon Ultium EMG sensors. Effective mass was calculated as the ratio of peak force to fist acceleration at impact. Statistical analysis compared punching techniques and examined correlations with body composition and training experience. Straight punches (jab, cross) exhibited significantly higher effective mass than hooks (KW-H = 235.24; p < 0.001; η2 = 0.468), despite hooks generating greater peak forces. Cross punches had the highest effective mass (31.17 ± 16.20 kg), followed by jabs (30.39 ± 15.09 kg). No significant correlation was found between effective mass and body composition or training tenure, suggesting technique is more critical than absolute body mass. These findings highlight the importance of optimizing linear punch mechanics and impulse-to-acceleration synchronization in training to enhance effective mass transfer and striking performance.

Anxiety could be felt even in objectively peaceful situations, but a vision of conflict could result in increased stress levels. In this article, we aimed to identify hidden patterns of mental conditions and create male profiles to illustrate the different subgroups as well as determinants of anxiety levels among them in accordance with proximity to a possibility of direct exposure to military action. A sample of Ukrainian males, in duty as conscripts to military service (n = 392, M±SD = 22.1±5.3) participated in a survey. We used the 36-Item Short Form Health Survey, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. In addition to psychological indices, social-demographic data were collected. To discover the number of clusters, the k-means algorithm was used, the optimal number of clusters was found by the elbow algorithm. For validation of the model and its use for further prediction, the random forest machine-learning algorithm, was used. By performing k-means cluster analyses, 3 subgroups were identified. High values of psychological indices dominated in Subgroup 2, while lowest values dominated in Subgroup 3. Subgroup 1 showed a more even distribution among the indices. The strength of the relevance and main determinants of the prediction of the presented model mostly consisted of mental qualities, while socio-demographic data were slightly significant. There is no clear relevance between proximity or even the experience of military actions and anxiety levels. Other factors, mostly subjective feelings about mental conditions, are crucial determinants of feeling anxiety.

This study examined kinetic differences between orthodox and southpaw boxing stances across four fundamental punches – jab, cross, lead hook, and rear hook – to determine whether stance orientation influences punching force and fist acceleration. Thirty trained male boxers (age: 29.2 ± 1.4 years; body mass: 86.4 ± 1.4 kg; height: 175.8 ± 7.9 cm; training experience: 6.0 ± 2.1 years) performed five maximal-force repetitions of each punch in both stances. Punching force was recorded using an AMTI MC12-2K force plate, and fist acceleration was measured with a Noraxon Ultium EMG inertial sensor. Data were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank and Kruskal–Wallis tests with effect size estimation (ε 2_H). Wilcoxon signed-rank tests revealed punch-specific differences between stances. The jab generated greater force in southpaw (median: 1387.8 N, IQR: 1205.9–1658.6) than in orthodox (1292.8 N, 1129.1–1581.7; p = 0.021). In contrast, the cross (orthodox: 1863.4 N, 1594.3–2307.7 vs southpaw: 1589.7 N, 1363.4–1941.0; p < 0.001) and rear hook (orthodox: 2198.8 N, 1888.2–2580.6 vs southpaw: 2007.5 N, 1680.5–2262.3; p < 0.001) produced greater forces in orthodox. Lead hook force showed no significant stance difference (p > 0.05). No significant stance differences were observed for fist acceleration in any technique. Across both stances, hook punches exhibited substantially higher forces and accelerations than straight punches. Boxing stance does not confer a universal biomechanical advantage but affects performance in a technique-specific way. Bilateral stance training may enhance technical versatility and better prepare athletes for opponents with different orientations.

Background: One of the elements of improving the striking power of combat sports athletes is the ability to use their body mass in an efficient manner; this can improve movement technique and thus increase combat effectiveness. Therefore, the aim of this study was to gain knowledge about the influence of the effective mass obtained on the strength of turning and side kicks in the context of lateralization. Material and methods: The study involved four adult taekwon-do ITF (International Taekwon-do Federation) competitors. Acceleration and force data were obtained by mounting a wireless IMU sensor manufactured by Noraxon, which was synchronized with a force plate. Results: The median force pressure values amounted to 2661.53 N for the turning kick and 4596.15 N for the side kick, with foot acceleration of 150.56 m/s2 and 74.34 m/s2, respectively. The calculated median effective mass for the turning kick was 20.12%, and for the side kick, it was 73.09% of the total body mass. The conducted analysis indicates a lack of statistically significant differences between the right and left leg in the obtained kinetic variable values (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Our research suggests that the side kick achieves, on average, higher force values than the turning kick. The noted correlation between the three variables informs us that the greater the effective mass, the greater the force pressure and the smaller the foot acceleration, which is consistent with other studies. The lack of lateralization in the limbs performing the kicks is consistent with another study.

The purpose of this study was to understand the different forces exerted between the side kick and turning kick in taekwon-do, which would add knowledge to the field, as well as help inform future research. Eighty kicks performed by four elite ITF (International Taekwon-do Federation) athletes (age: 28.5 ± 7.2 years; body mass: 77.5 ± 6.7 kg; height: 180.0 ± 1.6 cm) were analysed. Participants performed a series of turning and side kicks with the right and left leg to the target. The impact-force-measuring apparatus was a training shield mounted on a force plate manufactured by AMTI, model MC12-2K. The mean resultant impact force for the turning kick was significantly lower than the mean resultant impact force for the side kick. There were no significant differences in the impact force between turning kicks performed with either the right or left leg. With regard to the correlations for the turning kick performed by both legs, there was almost a full correlation between FZ and the resultant impact force (r = 0.988 for the right leg and r = 0.994 for the left leg). The side kicks’ significantly higher resultant force (4429.77 ± 1361.25 N) than that of a turning kick (2648.98 ± 441.41 N) could be due to more effective mass being used. The turning kick peaked in a shorter time; this indicates that a turning kick has a shorter contact time with the target. The strong correlations between Fz and the resultant impact force in both kicks could be due to the direction of the kicks, suggesting that the force in the Z axis was the most important direction.

Background/Objectives: The prison environment presents a unique context for examining the impact of addiction on physical and psychological functioning. Individuals with substance use disorders (SUDs) are overrepresented in correctional facilities and often experience greater emotional difficulties and impaired physical capacity. This study aimed to conduct a comparative analysis of psychological and functional profiles between addicted and non-addicted male inmates in a semi-open correctional facility. Methods: The study included 47 male prisoners (19 addicted, 28 non-addicted). Physical performance was assessed using the Countermovement Jump (CMJ), handgrip strength, the Functional Movement Screen (FMS), and the FitLight reaction time test. Psychological functioning was evaluated using six standardized questionnaires: problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping strategies, depression (PHQ-9), perceived stress (PSS-10), and self-compassion (SCS). Results: No statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) were found between addicted and non-addicted inmates in physical performance parameters. Addicted individuals demonstrated slightly higher handgrip strength with lower variability, while non-addicted inmates showed slightly better lower-body power in the CMJ test. Functional movement quality and reaction speed were similar between groups. Psychological assessments also revealed no significant differences between the groups. Coping styles, depressive symptoms, perceived stress levels, and self-criticism scores were comparable in both populations. In the addicted group, deeper squats correlated with lower stress (rho = −0.46, p = 0.047), and better hurdle step performance correlated with emotion-focused coping (rho = 0.46, p = 0.048). Conclusions: Although no statistically significant differences were found between addicted and non-addicted male inmates in the assessed physical and psychological outcomes, the limited sample size and context-specific nature of this pilot study suggest that these findings should be viewed as preliminary and interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, the observed associations between physical performance and psychological variables indicate subtle interconnections between motor capacity, stress perception, and coping mechanisms that merit further investigation in larger, longitudinal studies.