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In this paper, we analyze power in five modes of social organization, as can be found in Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Specifically, we analyze Smith's presentations of pre-capital accumulation and private appropriation of land; feudalism; a system of perfect liberty; late eighteenth century England; and the American colonies, and examine how wealth power, monopoly power, employer power, and political power is manifested within each. We conclude, as does Smith, that modes of social organization can neither be found nor analyzed separately from power.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is one of the most important parasitic diseases in the world. Despite the existence of many therapeutic strategies, the treatment of this infection still faces problems. Sodium chlorite as an antimicrobial agent has been shown to have acceptable tissue regenerative and wound healing properties. Therefore, the present study aimed to analyze the in vitro effects of different concentrations of sodium chlorite on Leishmania major promastigotes and macrophage cells. The inhibitory and toxicity effect of various concentrations (0.0035, − 1.8 mg/ml) of sodium chlorite on the standard Iranian strain of L. major promastigotes were evaluated via counting the cells and flow cytometry. Furthermore, cytotoxicity on promastigotes and J774 macrophage cell line were performed by MTT assay. The results of the inhibitory test demonstrated that sodium chlorite had dose-dependent, anti-leishmanial activities. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC 50 ) for promastigotes and J774 cells by cytotoxicity test was detected at 0.17 mg/ml and 0.08 mg/ml after 48 h respectively. Flow cytometry results showed that 27.34% death of promastigotes was observed in 0.0035 mg/ml of sodium chlorite and 78.12% in 1.8 mg/ml. The results of the present study showed that sodium chlorite could be used as an effective treatment for CL, especially in cases resistant to treatment with pentavalent compounds. However, the toxicity of this substance in high concentrations should be considered in clinical setting.

IntroductionDespite the fact that sexual and reproductive health has been considered key aspects of the individual’s wellbeing and social welfare, there are no adequate policies and programs to deal with sexual health, particularly among young people.MethodsA qualitative study was conducted from February to December 2015. Twenty-five semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with health policymakers in Iran using a purposive sampling method. The qualitative data were analyzed using conventional content analysis with an inductive interpretive approach.ResultsThe perceived barriers for sexual health programs generated by health-policymakers reside in three main domains: individual, structural, and socio-cultural. Under the domain of individual, the category of policymakers’ personal barriers comprises: “lack of knowledge,” “misperceptions,” and “stigma,” i.e., threat to their managerial positions. Under the domain of structural barriers, the category of “challenges in policy making processes” comprises: “the abstinence challenge/paradox of sexual health as a strategic goal,” “financial challenges,” “uncoordinated and unstable management of the program,” “challenges for data collection and planning,” and “lack of priority for sexual health.” Finally, under the domain of socio-cultural, the category of “conservative socio-cultural context, sexuality as a social taboo in Iranian society” emerged as a barrier for sexual health programs in Iran.ConclusionsTo introduce sexual health programs in a conservative society, health-policymakers must begin by advocating for sexual health, in order to create positive attitudes toward sexual heath as a component of human wellbeing, and then address social and cultural sensitivities by promoting greater dialogue.Social and Public Policy ImplicationsSexual health and sexual health needs are important aspects of life and warrant further research in Iran. Policy makers of the health system need to correct information of sexual health needs of people to health planning, and this clears barriers of sexual health planning in the health system of Iran.

Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) knowledge is an important predictor of an individual's sexual behavior; however, little is known regarding this issue among Iranians. This study assessed sexual and reproductive health knowledge among men and women aged 15 to 49 years in Tehran. A total of 755 men and women aged 15 to 49 years were recruited using multistage, random cluster sampling in June 2014. An illustrative anonymous questionnaire endorsed by the World Health Organization (WHO) was used to collect the data. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed. The results showed that men and women were moderately knowledgeable about sexual and reproductive health (mean score of SRH knowledge = 39, range: 26 to 52); however, myths and misperceptions prevailed in different aspects of SRH. For example, only 45% of women and 38.7% of men accurately knew that a person infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can look healthy. Friends were identified as the primary or secondary source of knowledge about puberty and sex-related issues. A multivariate analysis showed that being female (coefficient = 0.139, p < 0.001) and being married (coefficient = 0.180, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of better SRH knowledge, while being young (age group 15 to 24) was a significant determinant of poor SRH knowledge (coefficient = −0.161, p < 0.001) when other influencing factors were controlled. Culturally appropriate and age-specific comprehensive education is recommended, particularly for men, the unmarried, and the younger generation in Iran.

A correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00583-w

Background The purpose of this study is to assess attitudes toward premarital dating and sexual encounters in individuals aged 15–49 years in Tehran. Methods Utilizing the attitudes section of an original cross-sectional study ( n  = 755) aimed at assessing sexual health needs of adults, this paper examined personal attitudes towards premarital dating, non-sexual relationships and sexual encounters in both male and female adults aged between 15–49 years. Multi-stage cluster random sampling and a validated/reliable questionnaire were used. Descriptive, bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted using statistical software. Results The results indicated that the majority of the participants were supportive of dating. Almost three-fourths of the males were more positively inclined towards non-sexual, yet tactile, affectionate interactions between unmarried males and females as opposed to only half of the females (70 % vs. 50.5 %). Also, males held significantly more liberal attitudes than females in their acceptance of premarital sex. On preserving virginity prior to marriage, 43 % of the males felt that it was important for a female to be a virgin, whereas only 26 % felt it was important for males to remain a virgin. Interestingly, more females (61 %) supported the importance of a female’s virginity compared with the importance of males’ virginity (48 %). This study showed that, being a male, of a younger age, single, and being less religious or being secular were important determinants of a liberal sexual attitude. Conclusion These results might reflect a socio-cultural transition in the sexual attitudes of different age groups of participants - a phenomenon that will need empirical studies to unpack in the Iranian socio-cultural context.