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Predators affect prey by killing them directly (lethal effects) and by inducing costly antipredator behaviours in living prey (risk effects). Risk effects can strongly influence prey populations and cascade through trophic systems. A prerequisite for assessing risk effects is characterizing the spatiotemporal variation in predation risk. Risk effects research has experienced rapid growth in the last several decades. However, preliminary assessments of the resultant literature suggest that researchers characterize predation risk using a variety of techniques. The implications of this methodological variation for inference and comparability among studies have not been well recognized or formally synthesized. We couple a literature survey with a hierarchical framework, developed from established theory, to quantify the methodological variation in characterizing risk using carnivore-ungulate systems as a case study. Via this process, we documented 244 metrics of risk from 141 studies falling into at least 13 distinct subcategories within three broader categories. Both empirical and theoretical work suggest risk and its effects on prey constitute a complex, multi-dimensional process with expressions varying by spatiotemporal scale. Our survey suggests this multi-scale complexity is reflected in the literature as a whole but often underappreciated in any given study, which complicates comparability among studies and leads to an overemphasis on documenting the presence of risk effects rather than their mechanisms or scale of influence. We suggest risk metrics be placed in a more concrete conceptual framework to clarify inference surrounding risk effects and their cascading effects throughout ecosystems. We recommend studies (i) take a multi-scale approach to characterizing risk; (ii) explicitly consider 'true' predation risk (probability of predation per unit time); and (iii) use risk metrics that facilitate comparison among studies and the evaluation of multiple competing hypotheses. Addressing the pressing questions in risk effects research, including how, to what extent and on what scale they occur, requires leveraging the advantages of the many methods available to characterize risk while minimizing the confusion caused by variability in their application.

Unsustainable hunting, both illegal and legal, has led to the extirpation of many species. In the last 35 years giraffe Giraffa spp. populations have declined precipitously, with extinctions documented in seven African countries. Amongst the various reasons for these population declines, poaching is believed to play an important role in some areas. Giraffes are primarily hunted for consumption and for the use of their body parts as trophies and in traditional medicine. However, the socio-economic factors that correlate with the use of giraffe body parts are not well understood. We conducted our study in Tsavo Conservation Area, Kenya, which experiences high levels of poaching. We used semi-structured surveys amongst 331 households to document how giraffe body parts are typically acquired and their intended use (i.e. trophy, medicinal or consumptive). We then used logistic regression models to assess the correlations between nine socio-economic factors and the use of giraffe body parts. We found that giraffe body parts had mostly consumptive and trophy uses. One-time suppliers, opportunistic access and widely known markets were the most common means of acquiring giraffe body parts. Results from our models showed that three variables (gender: men, occupation: tourism worker, and land ownership) were correlated significantly and positively with the use of giraffe body parts. We describe the complex links between socio-economic factors and the use of giraffe body parts and highlight the importance of implementing mitigation measures adapted to local contexts to combat a challenge that many species of conservation concern are facing.

The activity budget of giraffe in various African populations has been studied extensively, revealing that it is affected by body size, foraging patterns, and sex. Foraging patterns show an animal's feeding choices in its environment and are influenced by resource availability, competition, and predation risk. The ability of giraffe to survive and reproduce is significantly impacted by the variation in activity budget and foraging across different ecosystems. Our study focused on evaluating the seasonal activity budgets and foraging patterns of Nubian giraffe in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya. We used the scan sampling method to record the activity budget of giraffe which included foraging, movement, resting, and drinking water. We then evaluated if activities varied with the seasons. A total of 11,280 activities were documented, with 4560 (40.4%) occurring during the dry season and 6720 (59.6%) during the wet season. Foraging accounted for 53% of the time budget during the dry season, but increased to 57% during the wet season. There was a slight drop in records of movement (22%; n = 995 of 4560) and resting (25%; n = 1145 of 4560) from the dry season to the wet season (20%; n = 1375 out of 6720 and 22%; n = 1515 of 6720). During the dry season, females (53%) foraged longer than males (47%), whereas males (44%) had longer resting periods than females (56%). Giraffe frequently fed on Vachellia xanthophloea (67%; n = 4136 of 6215 foraging records), Maytenus senegalensis (19%), and Solanum incanum (9%) over both seasons. Overall, seasons had little impact on giraffe activity time budgets and foraging patterns in Lake Nakuru National Park. A better insight into the behavioural patterns of this subspecies will allow managers to enhance the protection and conservation of the species and its habitat. Heavy foraging on Vachellia by giraffe at LNNP has been associated with a population decline in number, so perhaps planting more of this species in LNNP could promote a rebound in numbers. The activity budget of the giraffe in various African populations has been studied extensively, revealing that it is affected by body size, foraging patterns, and sex. Our study focused on evaluating the seasonal activity budgets and foraging patterns of the Nubian giraffe in Lake Nakuru National Park, Kenya using scan sampling. Overall, seasons had little impact on giraffe activity time budgets and foraging patterns in Lake Nakuru National Park.

Giraffe (Giraffa spp.) numbers and their habitat have drastically declined throughout Africa over the last century due to various threats linked to anthropogenic impacts including habitat loss and fragmentation, disease, poaching, and climate change. In Kenya, the Nubian giraffe (G. camelopardalis camelopardalis) population decreased significantly up until the late 1980s. As a result of increased conservation efforts, the Nubian giraffe population has rebounded since the early 1990s, however, it remains predominantly extralimital and/or restricted to closed protected areas in central and western Kenya. In this paper, we set out to assess historical and current population numbers and trends of Nubian giraffe in Kenya, and highlight the conservation efforts that are applied to conserve this Critically Endangered taxon. We reviewed published manuscripts and grey literature, wildlife authority records and interviewed landowners with Nubian giraffe populations. We also conducted photographic surveys in three national parks and reserves where anecdotal reports suggested that the largest populations of Nubian giraffe occurred. We found that from a low of  130 individuals remaining in the wild and near extinction in the mid-1970s, the Nubian giraffe population has rebounded to  1,042 in 14 populations in Kenya, which represents an increase of more than 700%. This conservation success story is attributed to targeted management efforts, in particular conservation translocations and the increased monitoring of populations. At the same time, various factors including habitat loss and fragmentation, and infrastructure developments, linked with the increasing human population continue to pose a threat to their survival in the country. We place our findings in the broader context of population ecology and present opportunities for conservation research as well as recommendations that inform the management of this critical population of concern.

Giraffe ( Giraffa spp.) are among the most unique extant mammals in terms of anatomy, phylogeny, and ecology. However, aspects of their evolution, ontogeny, and taxonomy are unresolved, retaining lingering questions that are pivotal for their conservation. We assembled the largest known dataset of Giraffa skulls (n = 515) to investigate patterns of cranial variability using 3D geometric morphometrics. The results show distinct sexual dimorphism and divergent ontogenetic trajectories of skull shape for the north clade ( G . camelopardalis antiquorum , G . c . camelopardalis , G . c . peralta , and G . reticulata ) and the south clade ( G . giraffa angolensis , G . g . giraffa , G . tippelskirchi tippelskirchi , and G . t . thornicrofti ) which was further supported statistically. Discriminant functions found statistically significant cranial shape differences between all four Giraffa species, and in some cases also between subspecies of the same species. Our 3D morphometric analysis shows that the four genetically distinct Giraffa spp. also have distinct cranial morphologies, largely addressable to features of display (ossicones). Our results highlight the importance of focusing future giraffe conservation efforts on each taxon to maintain their unique characteristics and biodiversity in the wild.

Background In the speciation continuum, the strength of reproductive isolation varies, and species boundaries are blurred by gene flow. Interbreeding among giraffe ( Giraffa spp.) in captivity is known, and anecdotal reports of natural hybrids exist. In Kenya, Nubian ( G. camelopardalis camelopardalis ), reticulated ( G. reticulata ), and Masai giraffe sensu stricto ( G. tippelskirchi tippelskirchi ) are parapatric, and thus, the country might be a melting pot for these taxa. We analyzed 128 genomes of wild giraffe, 113 newly sequenced, representing these three taxa. Results We found varying levels of Nubian ancestry in 13 reticulated giraffe sampled across the Laikipia Plateau most likely reflecting historical gene flow between these two lineages. Although comparatively weaker signs of ancestral gene flow and potential mitochondrial introgression from reticulated into Masai giraffe were also detected, estimated admixture levels between these two lineages are minimal. Importantly, contemporary gene flow between East African giraffe lineages was not statistically significant. Effective population sizes have declined since the Late Pleistocene, more severely for Nubian and reticulated giraffe. Conclusions Despite historically hybridizing, these three giraffe lineages have maintained their overall genomic integrity suggesting effective reproductive isolation, consistent with the previous classification of giraffe into four species.

Conservation translocations are increasingly important for restoring and augmenting wild populations of extirpated species or those diminishing rapidly. Assessing the effectiveness of translocation outcomes requires a clear understanding of success metrics and long‐term monitoring data. As such, the outcomes of conservation translocations remain underreported, limiting their potential for informing adaptive management and future translocation efforts. Here, we assess the post‐translocation demography of multiple populations of the critically endangered Nubian giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) in Uganda. Since 2015, there have been a series of giraffe conservation translocations designed to reintroduce them to habitats where they were previously extirpated and to reinforce a small population. In 2015, Nubian giraffe were found in only two protected areas in Uganda: Murchison Falls National Park (NP) (north of the Nile River) and Kidepo Valley NP. Through several conservation translocations that used Murchison Falls NP as a source population, Nubian giraffe were translocated to Lake Mburo NP, Murchison Falls NP (south of the Nile River), and Pian Upe Wildlife Reserve, while the population in Kidepo Valley NP was reinforced. In this study, we evaluated the post‐translocation demography of all Nubian giraffe populations in Uganda. Using individual‐based photographic surveys and a combination of complete enumeration and mark‐recapture analyses with Cormack Jolly Seber modeling, we estimated abundance and survival rates for all giraffe populations. After an average post‐translocation latency period of 36 months, all giraffe populations in Uganda showed subsequent population growth and high survival rates across all age classes. Additionally, the donor population in northern Murchison Falls NP continued to show positive population growth. These results demonstrate the effectiveness of translocations and monitoring as conservation tools for the critically endangered Nubian giraffe in Uganda. Such comparisons allow for critical evaluations of post‐translocation ecology and can be used to inform best practices for future translocation activities. Conservation translocations are crucial for restoring and bolstering wild populations of species that are either extirpated or rapidly declining. Evaluating their success requires understanding population ecology metrics and conducting long‐term monitoring, yet outcomes are often underreported. In this study, we assessed the post‐translocation demography of Nubian giraffes in Uganda, using an individual‐based photographic database and mark‐recapture analyses to find that after an average latency of 36 months, all populations exhibited growth and high survival rates, highlighting the effectiveness of these conservation efforts.

Negative interactions between humans and wildlife (i.e. those presenting risks to human security or private property) can trigger retaliation and potential human-wildlife conflict (HWC). The nature and strength of these human responses may depend on previous interactions with wildlife and can be shaped by landscape conditions. However, the ways in which previous experiences and landscape conditions interact to shape peoples' attitudes towards wildlife are not well-understood. We conducted our study in Tsavo Conservation Area, Kenya, which experiences some of the highest rates of HWC documented in East Africa. We explored how previous experiences with wildlife and landscape conditions interact to inform the attitudes of people towards wildlife. We conducted semi-structured surveys among 331 households and fit an ordinal mixed-effects regression model to predict human attitudes to wildlife as a function of landscape conditions and previous interactions. Respondents indicated that baboons, elephants, and lions posed the greatest risks to human security and private property. Households experiencing risks from wildlife wanted wildlife populations to decrease, whereas households depending on grazing lands outside the study area wished to see wildlife increase. Our study demonstrates that human-wildlife interactions have important social and spatial contexts, and are not uniform across households in the same area owing to location of private property. Correspondingly, for interventions to be effective, we recommend considerations of local contexts and landscape conditions of communities.

1. Non-invasive techniques have long been used to estimate wildlife population abundance and density. However, recent technological breakthroughs have facilitated non-invasive estimation of the proportion of animal populations with certain diseases. Giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis are increasingly becoming recognized as a species of conservation concern with decreasing population trajectories across their range in Africa. 2. Diseases may be an important component impacting giraffe population declines, and the emerging 'giraffe skin disease' (GSD), characterized by the appearance of wrinkled skin and alopecic lesions on the limbs, neck and chest of infected giraffe, may hinder movement causing increased susceptibility to predation. 3. We examined the prevalence of GSD in Tanzania's Ruaha National Park over a 4-month period in 2015, using photographic capture-recapture surveys via road-based transects. We divided the study area into five circuitous survey units, each approximately 100 km in length (x̅ = 99·22 km, SD = 3·72), and surveyed for giraffes for 4 months. From these surveys, we developed a data base of spatially explicit giraffe photographs. 4. We processed these photographs for individual identification and fitted spatial capture-recapture models to predict the spatial configuration of giraffe abundance and GSD prevalence within the study area. 5. Our results indicated that >86% of the giraffe population showed signs of GSD and that the disease was more prevalent in the northern and north-eastern portion of Ruaha National Park. 6. Synthesis and applications. Our research shows that data from non-invasive surveys can be used in spatial capture-recapture (SCR) models to estimate the proportion of a population affected by a visible disease. Researchers and conservationists can use SCR models to better examine the variation in parameters associated with these populations such as sex, age class, movement, and encounter rate, which may be linked to the prevalence of the disease, while incorporating broad spatial and temporal dimensions of the population in such areas. We discuss the implications of this research for conservation of threatened species with an emphasis on disease ecology and vulnerability to predations, and more broadly, for wildlife conservation.