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Since the lipid profile is altered by physical activity, the study of lipid metabolism is a remarkable element in understanding if and how physical activity affects the health of both professional athletes and sedentary subjects. Although not fully defined, it has become clear that resistance exercise uses fat as an energy source. The fatty acid oxidation rate is the result of the following processes: (a) triglycerides lipolysis, most abundant in fat adipocytes and intramuscular triacylglycerol (IMTG) stores, (b) fatty acid transport from blood plasma to muscle sarcoplasm, (c) availability and hydrolysis rate of intramuscular triglycerides, and (d) transport of fatty acids through the mitochondrial membrane. In this review, we report some studies concerning the relationship between exercise and the aforementioned processes also in light of hormonal controls and molecular regulations within fat and skeletal muscle cells.

(1) Background: One mechanism through which physical activity (PA) provides benefits is by triggering activity at a molecular level, where neurotrophins (NTs) are known to play an important role. However, the expression of the circulating levels of neurotrophic factors, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4/5), in response to exercise, is not fully understood. Therefore, the aim was to provide an updated overview on the neurotrophin (NT) variation levels of BDNF and NT-4/5 as a consequence of a long-term aerobic exercise intervention, and to understand and describe whether the upregulation of circulating NT levels is a result of neurotrophic factors produced and released from the brain, and/or from neurotrophic secreting peripheral organs. (2) Methods: The articles were collected from PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, MEDLINE, and Embase. Data were analyzed through a narrative synthesis. (3) Results: 30 articles studied humans who performed training protocols that ranged from 4 to 48 weeks; 22 articles studied rodents with an intervention period that ranged from 4 to 64 weeks. (4) Conclusions: There is no unanimity between the upregulation of BDNF in humans; conversely, concerning both BDNF and NT-4/5 in animal models, the results are heterogeneous. Whilst BDNF upregulation appears to be in relative agreement, NT-4/5 seems to display contradictory and inconsistent conclusions.

Background/Objectives: The integration of psychological techniques, such as psyching-up, into sports training has been increasingly explored for its potential to enhance athletic performance and cognitive function, especially in young athletes. This study aimed to examine the effects of combining psyching-up techniques with cognitive challenges on psychophysiological responses and visuo-auditory attention in adolescent competitive swimmers. Methods: A total of 48 male competitive swimmers were randomly assigned to three groups: the Psyching-Up and Cognitive Group (PCG), the Cognitive Training Group (CGT), and a Control Group (CG). The intervention involved ten training sessions, where the PCG received psyching-up techniques, while both the PCG and CGT participated in cognitive training tasks. Key assessments included cognitive performance tests (Bells Test, Trail Making Test Parts A and B, Go/No-Go Auditory Task), heart rate (%HR max), blood lactate levels, perceived exertion (RPE), and mood state (Total Mood Disturbance). Results: The PCG showed significant improvements in cognitive performance, with fewer omissions in the Bells Test (p = 0.041) and faster reaction times in the Trail Making Test (Part A, p = 0.002; Part B, p = 0.001). In the Go/No-Go Auditory Task, the PCG exhibited faster reaction times and a higher hit rate (p = 0.001). There were no significant differences in physiological responses, with %HR max and blood lactate levels showing stable trends across groups. However, the PCG reported significantly higher enjoyment (p < 0.001) and a reduction in Total Mood Disturbance (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Integrating psyching-up techniques with cognitive challenges positively impacts cognitive performance and psychological well-being in adolescent swimmers, without altering physiological responses. These findings highlight the potential of psychological interventions to enhance performance and overall athlete experience in youth sports training.

Ghrelin, a gastric-derived peptide, regulates appetite, food intake, and energy homeostasis. Body weight plays a crucial role in modulating circulating ghrelin levels. Since exercise training is one of the most valuable tools for controlling body weight, it is relevant to consider whether exercise can influence total ghrelin secretion. This study aims to perform a systematic review of the effect of acute/chronic exercise on plasma ghrelin levels. An extensive literature search was carried out on various databases, including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. The search was conducted using English keywords such as acute-exercise, transient-exercise, exercise, chronic-exercise, training, physical-activity, physical-training, exercise training, and total-ghrelin, ghrelin, appetite-related-peptides, gastrointestinal-peptides, gastrointestinal-hormones, and appetite-regulating-hormone. Initially, 2104 studies were identified. After evaluating study quality, data from 61 relevant studies were extracted for inclusion in this review. Most studies indicated that short-term acute aerobic exercise did not affect total ghrelin levels regardless of exercise intensity, characteristics, or growth hormone (GH) secretion. However, long and very-long aerobic/chronic exercise increased total ghrelin levels, mainly in overweight/obese individuals. Acute/chronic exercise may differentially influence total ghrelin secretion. Short-term acute aerobic exercise induces stable plasma ghrelin concentrations, independent of GH secretion. Long-term aerobic training increased its levels mainly in overweight/obese individuals through body composition and oxidative stress reduction. Additionally, total ghrelin secretion is more sensitive to exercise/training duration than exercise/training intensity.

Postmenopausal obesity is an important public health concern, accompanied by increased systemic inflammation that heightens the risk of liver disease. Exercise improved both inflammatory and hepatic function. Moderate‐intensity intermittent‐walking training (MIWT) is considered a feasible approach for postmenopausal women with obesity. This study aimed to investigate whether MIWT could reduce the risk by modulating hepatic enzymes and selected inflammatory markers. Thirty‐six sedentary postmenopausal women with obesity (mean age 55.7 ± 3.5 years; mean weight: 86.9 ± 12.2 kg; mean BMI: 34.0 ± 5.0 kg/m2) were randomly assigned to a training group (TG, n = 18) or a control group (CG, n = 18). The TG completed a 10‐week MIWT protocol (4 sessions/week, ∼85 min/session), involving repeated walking intervals at 60%–80% of the 6MWT distance with active recovery. As a secondary objective, changes in body composition and aerobic capacity were also assessed. Significant improvements were observed in the TG group in liver enzymes alanine‐transaminase (ALT), (p = 0.002, d = 0.29), aspartate‐transaminase (AST) (p = 0.013, d = 0.29), gamma‐glutamyl‐transferase (GGT) (p = 0.036, d = 0.25), total bilirubin (p = 0.009, d = 0.13), and C‐reactive‐protein (CRP) (p = 0.007, d = 0.49). Additionally, significant reductions were found in body mass (p < 0.001), BMI (p < 0.001), body fat (p = 0.001), and waist circumference (p < 0.001), along with increased aerobic capacity (p = 0.031). These findings indicate that MIWT is a feasible and effective intervention for inducing favorable changes in liver‐related biochemical markers and systemic inflammation, with additional benefits for body composition and aerobic fitness in postmenopausal women with obesity. Summary Moderate‐intensity intermittent walking (MIWT) significantly improved liver enzymes (ALT, AST, GGT) and increased total bilirubin, indicating enhanced hepatic function in postmenopausal women with obesity. Systemic inflammation was reduced, as evidenced by significant decreases in C‐reactive protein (CRP) following the 10‐week MIWT program. MIWT also improved body composition by reducing body mass, BMI, body fat, and waist circumference, while enhancing aerobic capacity. MIWT represents a feasible, low‐cost, non‐pharmacological intervention that can be integrated into community‐ or primary care–based programs to improve metabolic health in postmenopausal women with obesity.

A variety of aquatic training regimens have been found to be beneficial for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in multiple domains. This study investigated and compared the efficacy of two aquatic training regimens (technical vs. game-based) on gross motor skills, stereotypy behavior and emotion regulation in children with ASD. Twenty-two autistic children were randomly assigned into three groups: two experimental groups performed either a technical aquatic program or a game-based aquatic program and a control group. Participants were assessed before and after an 8-week training period, with the Test of Gross Motor Development, the stereotypy subscale of the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale, and the Emotion Regulation Checklist. A significant effect for time was found in gross motor skills and stereotypy behavior in both experimental groups. An improvement in gross motor skills was observed in both experimental groups compared to the control group. A small pre-post change effect in emotion functioning was found in all groups. No significant differences were observed between the experimental groups in all assessed variables. Our findings provide additional evidence suggesting the effectiveness of beneficial effects of aquatic activities on the motor and social skills that underpin the hypothesis that motor and intellectual domains are highly interrelated in autistic children.

Background: Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are widely studied for their effects on muscle recovery and performance. Aims: This study examined the effects of BCAA supplementation on anthropometric data, physical performance, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and fatigue in recreational weightlifters. Methods: The trial involved 100 participants (50 men and 50 women), randomized into BCAA and placebo groups. Subjects in the BCAA group took five daily capsules of 500 mg L-leucine, 250 mg L-isoleucine, and 250 mg L-valine for six months. A two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the main and interaction effects of sex and treatment. Results: Notable findings include significant improvements in muscle recovery, as indicated by reduced DOMS, particularly in women who showed a decrement of 18.1 ± 9.4 mm compared to 0.8 ± 1.2 mm in the placebo group of a horizontal 100 mm line. Fatigue perception was also significantly lower in the BCAA group, with women reporting a greater decrease (2.6 ± 1.5 scores) compared to the placebo group (0.6 ± 0.7 scores). Strength gains were prominent, especially in men, with a 10% increase in bench press maximum observed in the BCAA group. The interaction between sex and treatment was significant, suggesting sex-specific responses to BCAA supplementation. Conclusions: These results underscore the effectiveness of BCAA supplementation in enhancing muscle recovery, reducing fatigue, and improving strength. This study also highlights sex-specific responses, with women benefiting more in terms of DOMS and fatigue reduction, while men experienced greater strength gains, suggesting a need for tailored supplementation strategies.

Background This study aimed to evaluate injury rates among Serie A soccer players across three seasons, highlighting the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods Fifty-four professional soccer players in the Italian Serie were assessed over the course of three seasons, including the 2019/2020 season, which was affected by the pandemic. Injuries were categorized into muscular, skeletal, and articular, and were analyzed according to player roles (defenders, midfielders, and forwards). They were also stratified by the period of the competitive season: (1) preseason, (2) first half of the season, (3) second half of the season, and (4) end of the season. Results The results indicate a sharp increase in injuries during the post-COVID-19 season (2020/2021), with increases in articular injuries (65%), skeletal injuries (120%), and muscular injuries (65%), compared to the previous seasons. Among player roles, defenders were the most affected by injuries, with a notable increase in the second half of the post-COVID season (36% more injuries compared to the pre-COVID season). The injury rate among midfielders increased by 46% in the post-COVID season compared to the pre-COVID season, with the highest number of injuries occurring at the end of the season. Conclusions This increased injury rate in defenders and midfielders, who often position themselves in the defensive zone, could be due to muscle mass loss. Further studies are needed to explore this aspect of injury epidemiology in soccer. Ultimately, careful, and gradual training is crucial for preventing injuries and maintaining the quality of soccer players’ performances.

Aging has a profound impact on the immune system, leading to a gradual decline in its function and increased systemic inflammation, collectively known as immunosenescence and inflammaging. These changes make older adults more susceptible to infections, including COVID‐19, and contribute to worse clinical outcomes, such as higher morbidity and mortality rates. This review explores immunological changes associated with aging, including impaired innate immune responses, reduced T‐ and B‐cell function, and altered cytokine profiles. A comprehensive literature search identified relevant studies on the topic, and inclusion criteria focused on studies addressing age‐related immune changes and their impact on responses to COVID‐19. The findings underscore the need for targeted healthcare strategies to mitigate the negative effects of aging on immunity and improve immune resilience, and ultimately clinical outcomes and quality of life for this vulnerable population.

In order to maximize adaptations and to avoid nonfunctional overreaching syndrome or noncontact injury, coaches in high-performance sports must regularly monitor recovery before and after competitions/important training sessions and maintain well-being status. Therefore, quantifying and evaluating psychometric states of recovery during the season in sports teams such as soccer is important. Over the last years, there has been substantial growth in research related to psychometric states of recovery in soccer. The increase in research on this topic is coincident with the increase in popularity obtained by subjective monitoring of the pre-fatigue state of the players before each training sessions or match with a strong emphasis on the effects of well-being or recovery state. Among the subjective methods for players’ control, the Hooper index (HI) assesses the quality of sleep during the previous night, overall stress, fatigue, and delayed-onset muscle soreness. Additionally, the total quality of recovery (TQR) scale measures recovery status. The HI and TQR recorded before each training session or match were affected by the variability of training load (TL) and influenced the physical and technical performances, and the affective aspects of soccer players. Researchers have recommended wellness monitoring soccer players’ psychometric state of recovery before each training session or match in order to detect early signs of fatigue and optimize high-level training performance. This method allows for better detecting signs of individual fatigue and allows coaches to adapt and readjust the TL, and avoid physical and technical gaps in order to improve the performance of soccer players.