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Background Urban markets serve as crucial centres for trading traditional medicinal plants, yet there is limited research on the diversity, geographic origins, and socio-economic contributions of these plants. Therefore, this study aimed at understanding the species composition and diversity, conservation status, and economic importance of medicinal plants in urban markets of Harare, Zimbabwe, to provide insights into their sustainability and cultural significance. Methods This study surveyed medicinal plant vendors in three major urban markets in Harare, Mbare, Highfield, and the Central Business District (CBD) in 2019 over a period of three months. Data were collected through semi-structured questionnaires to inventory medicinal plant species, document vendors' districts of origin, and assess harvesting practices. Species diversity was analysed using Shannon–Wiener and Simpson diversity indices, while Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) was used to compare species composition across markets. The informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated to determine the level of agreement among vendors on the medicinal use of plant species. Results A total of 64 medicinal plant species were identified, with Fabaceae being the most represented family. Sixty-one species were in the least concern IUCN Red List category. Key species with high use reports included Entada goetzei (62), Cassia abbreviata (58), Pterocarpus angolensis (40), and Albizia anthelmintica (31). Roots were the most sold plant part, followed by bark and leaves. Mbare exhibited the highest species richness (54), followed by Highfield (34), while the CBD recorded the lowest richness (23). Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) analysis revealed distinct differences in species composition among the three markets ( R  = 0.492), with Highfield displaying a unique suit of medicinal plant species. Vendors primarily originated and sourced their medicinal plants from eastern Zimbabwe, particularly Chipinge, highlighting a strong link between plant sourcing and geographic origin. The ICF was highest for gastrointestinal disorders (0.807), women’s health (0.778), sexually transmitted infections (0.746), and labour-related ailments (0.842). Medicinal plant trade contributed significantly to vendors' livelihoods, with monthly incomes ranging from US$150 to $300. Conclusion This study underscores the high diversity of medicinal plants and their socio-economic importance in Harare’s urban markets. This shows that traditional medicine is still considered important in primary health care in the city of Harare. However, the reliance on distant districts (~ ≥ 100 km) for plant sourcing raises concerns about the possibility of unknowingly overharvesting.

Background Traditional medicine is integral to the culture of the Ndau ethnic group in Chipinge district, Zimbabwe. Traditional healers use a wide range of plant and animal products to treat various ailments, and there is need for documentation and sustainable practices to preserve these resources for future generations and pharmaceutical potential. This study was aimed at documenting the medicinal ethnobotanical and ethnozoological knowledge of traditional healers in Chipinge, identify the species used, and assess the role of traditional healing practices in supporting healers' livelihoods. Methods Between December 2018 and March 2019, data were collected from 22 traditional healers using semi-structured questionnaires focusing on medicinal species, their uses, harvesting or collection methods, and their socioeconomic impacts. Plant voucher specimens were identified at the National Herbarium of Zimbabwe (SRGH) in Harare, and identities of animal species were confirmed by participants through use of images in the Mammals of Southern Africa field guide. Informant consensus factor (ICF) and use reports (Nur) were calculated to assess agreement among healers. Results Majority of participants (73.0%) attributed their knowledge to ancestral callings, while 27.0% had received mentorship. A total of 63 plant species from 31 families were documented, with roots (38.0%) and bark (33.0%) being the most commonly used parts. Of the ten vertebrate species reported, nine were mammals and one was a reptile. Ninety-five percent of the healers reported the local unavailability of some medicinal plant species. For plant-based remedies, the highest ICF (0.67) was recorded for AIDS-related infections and ulcers, while STDs had the most use reports (87). For animal-based treatments, AIDS had the highest ICF (0.8), followed by STDs (0.6), which also had the most use reports (11). The high use of traditional remedies for STDs and AIDS may reflect issues of stigma, accessibility, and trust in conventional health care, underscoring the need for culturally sensitive health education and integrated care approaches. Monthly incomes ranged from US$150 to US$600, with most clients coming from low-income local communities. Conclusion This study highlights the rich ethnopharmacological knowledge in Chipinge while underscoring challenges such as overharvesting and socioeconomic vulnerability. Sustainable harvesting and formal recognition of healers through national bodies like the Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association (ZINATHA) are essential steps toward integrating traditional medicine into modern health care and preserving this vital cultural heritage.

Aim Despite the importance of termite mounds in plant species’ taxonomic diversity, no study has quantified the effect of termite mounds on woody plant species’ phylogenetic diversity and phyloendemism. In order to understand how mounds influence phylogenetic diversity (PD), we had two objectives: (i) to determine the influence of termite mounds on PD and (ii) to determine how this varies with environmental and geographic factors. Location Africa. Method We performed a meta‐analysis on 21 studies that satisfied our selection criteria out of 369 that we initially identified. All these studies sampled woody plants that occurred on Macrotermes mounds and the surrounding savanna matrix. Results Part of our findings shows that termite mounds had higher PD compared with the surrounding savanna plots. We found that phyloendemism (PE) does not respond to the effects of Macrotermes mounds at small scales, that is between mounds and the savanna matrix. However, at continental scales, phyloendemism responded to environmental variables such as altitude, rainfall and temperature. Altitude and latitude acted negatively on both PD and phyloendemism, while temperature had a positive influence on both metrics. Main conclusions We provide the first quantification of the effect of termite mounds on woody plants’ PD in the savannas. Overall, termite mounds contribute, not only to taxonomic diversity in the savanna but also to PD of woody plants. Our analysis shows that termite mounds contribute strongly to overall savanna PD, hence the need to consider them in conservation planning.

Human fatalities from human–wildlife conflict (HWC) represent a critical dimension of conservation, often triggering retaliatory actions and post-traumatic stress in affected communities. However, most studies focus on the economic implications of HWC, neglecting human fatalities which may have far-reaching long-term implications. This study investigates the spatial and temporal patterns of human fatalities caused by megafaunal species in Zimbabwe, using data collected from 2016 to 2022. Through spatial and statistical analyses based on the Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis and Mann–Kendall trend test, we assess fatalities caused by six megafaunal species: Nile crocodile ( Crocodylus niloticus ), African elephant ( Loxodonta africana ), hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus amphibius ), African buffalo ( Syncerus caffer ), African lion ( Panthera leo ) and spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta ). The results of the study showed that crocodiles and elephants account for over 80% of human fatalities in Zimbabwe. These fatalities also significantly increased over the study period ( p  < 0.03). In contrast, fatalities involving lions, hyenas, hippos, and buffaloes showed no significant increase, indicating more stable but still concerning risks. Fatality hotspots were concentrated in Kariba, Binga and Hwange districts in northern and western Zimbabwe, highlighting areas needing urgent interventions. These insights have broader implications for HWC management across Africa, where megafaunal species frequently interact with human populations. By adopting data-driven, species-specific strategies, other countries facing similar conflicts can foster human–wildlife coexistence and improve conservation outcomes.

The ways in which spines and thorns on plants affect browsing behavior and instantaneous intake rate (IIR) have been investigated for several medium and large ungulates, with most authors concluding that spines either affect the ability to obtain a full bite, or prevent the removal of twig material. We investigated how a very small ruminant, the blue duiker (Philantomba monticola; mass 5 kg), altered its feeding strategy when confronted with intact or despined branches of three species of woody plant that differed in leaf and spine size, density, and arrangement, viz. Dichrostachys cinerea africana, Vachellia (Acacia) karroo and Ziziphus mucronata. Increasing spine length and density reduced IIR (g/min), while bite size was directly related to leaf area. Bite rate and the lag time to taking the first bite did not differ among treatments. In all treatments, blue duikers cropped leaves in preference to pruning shoots. High spine density forced duikers to crop leaves at the ends of branches where spines were softer. At low spine density and on despined treatments, leaves midway along branches were preferred. Single bites (using incisors) were used preferentially in the presence of spines, with a shift to cheek bites on despined branches. We conclude that, as found with larger browsers, spines coupled with small leaf size provide the best defense against defoliation. Through controlled, repeated measures experiments on habituated animals, we investigated how differing plant leaf and spine size and arrangement affected bite rate, bite size, time taken to take a first bite, instantaneous intake rate (IIR), and bite type used by a small antelope, the blue duiker (Philantomba monticola). Longer, closely spaced spines affected time to first bite, the type of bite used (cheek teeth or incisors), and IIR, while leaf size affected bite rate and bite size. We conclude that a combination of small leaves and dense spines limits plant tissue loss to blue duikers.

Disturbance, particularly agricultural expansion is one of the major threats to the biodiversity and ecological functions of tropical and sub-tropical ecosystems. In this regard, we examined changes in the species richness, abundance, and diversity of termites across different disturbance treatments in a sub-tropical semi-arid savanna in south eastern Zimbabwe. Nine transects (100 × 2 m) representing three habitat disturbance treatments (primary woodland; grazing area; agricultural field) were sampled for termites using a rapid biodiversity assessment protocol. Termites were more abundant and species-rich in primary woodland and grazing area than in the agricultural field. Twelve termite species from three sub-families were present, with Microtermes sp. constituting 35% of the identified termite species. Termite feeding group structure differed significantly among land-use types, and of all termites present, wood-feeding termites were the most abundant while soil-feeders were rare in the agricultural field. In conclusion the observed pattern in termite species richness and relative abundance indicates that termites are very resilient to natural disturbance and might actually benefit from some natural disturbances like they did in the grazing area of this study, but they are not resilient to extreme anthropogenic disturbance. Although there was no notable difference in termite species richness and relative abundance between agricultural field and primary woodland, the pattern observed across the three sites may be potential support for the IDH suggesting that intermediate levels of physical disturbance intensity influence the structure and functioning of termite assemblages in semi-arid savanna.

Foraging site selection by large herbivores is influenced by multiple factors varying across landscapes and spatial scales. Termite mounds harbour highly nutritious plants compared with the savanna matrix, making them preferred foraging patches in many savannas. However, it is unknown whether termite mounds equally influence herbivore grazing intensity across geological substrates and mound sizes. These knowledge gaps hamper our ability to draw general trans-ecosystem conclusions about the effect of termite mounds for savanna herbivores. We measured grazing intensity on mounds of three different size classes (small, medium and large) across two geologies with differing soil nutrition (granite and basalt) in Gonarezhou National Park, Zimbabwe. We recorded measurements across three seasons (hot wet, cool dry and hot dry), and at multiple distances from mounds. Grazing intensity on mounds was higher on nutrient-poor granite than nutrient-rich basalt, and termite mounds of all sizes had a significant effect on grazing on granite during the cool dry season. Grazing was highest on large mounds on both geologies throughout the year. Large mounds also had the largest spatial influence on grazing in the cool dry season, up to 8 m beyond the mound edge on granite and 2 m on basalt. When scaled up to the landscape level, mounds influenced about 15% of the granite landscape, but only about 0.5% of the basalt landscape. Our results show that the positive effects of mounds on grazing intensity were pronounced on nutrient-poor soils but negligible on nutrient-rich soils, and that the magnitude of these effects varied across seasons and with mound size.

Abandoned cattle (Bos taurus) kraals are sources of habitat heterogeneity in dystrophic semi‐arid African savannas with a strong positive effect on soil nutrients and plant productivity. However, little is known regarding how macro‐invertebrate assemblages vary between abandoned kraals and the surrounding savanna matrix. We tested whether herbaceous biomass and basal and aerial covers and soil nutrients have an effect on aboveground and belowground macro‐invertebrate assemblages. Twelve abandoned kraals were contrasted with their paired control plots for soil characteristics, herbaceous productivity, and macro‐invertebrate assemblages in Save Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe. Abandoned kraals had significantly higher concentrations of soil nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and calcium (Ca) as well as herbaceous biomass and basal and aerial covers than control plots. Both aboveground and belowground macro‐invertebrate species richness were higher on abandoned kraals. However, only belowground macro‐invertebrate diversity (Shannon H′ and Hill number 1) was significantly higher on abandoned kraals. Soil nutrients and herbaceous productivity had positive and significant correlations with the dominant taxa (Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Isoptera, and Myriapoda) on abandoned kraals. These results add to the growing body of evidence that abandoned kraals exert significant effects on savanna spatial heterogeneity years later, with implications on ecosystem processes and functioning. In this manuscript, we present new knowledge on how soil and plant productivity influence both aboveground and belowground macro‐invertebrate assemblages. Abandoned cattle enclosures remain important for savanna macro‐invertebrates years after abandonment.

Termite mounds perform important roles in savanna ecosystems, generating heterogeneity and influencing ecosystem processes across multiple trophic levels. However, the influence the environment and neighboring termite colonies have on mound spatial patterning and structure is poorly understood, despite the profound implications such dynamics can have on ecosystems. To better understand these drivers, we mapped the spatial distribution and size of active and inactive Macrotermes mounds in eight 1-km2 plots on contrasting geologies, nutrient-rich granite and nutrient-poor basalt, in a semi-arid Zimbabwean savanna. Although mound density was not significantly different between basalt (5.5 mounds/ha) and granite (6.1 mounds/ha), termite mound structural attributes and spatial distribution patterns varied greatly between geologies. Mound size distributions differed between the geologies and mounds were 2.6 times taller and 3.9 times wider and had 15 times greater lateral surface area on granite. Subsequently, 6% of the total landscape was covered by mounds on granite compared with only 0.4% on basalt. On granite, large mounds exhibited significant over-dispersion at scales below 30 m, signifying density-dependent thinning. Furthermore, small mounds were clustered around large mounds, likely a result of the budding of new colonies comprising fully fledged castes less vulnerable to competition. In contrast, random patterning was evident on comparably homogenous basalt. Our results demonstrate the powerful influence geological substrate has on mound spatial patterning and structure, suggesting that the importance of termite mounds for ecosystem functioning is more pronounced on nutrient-poor granitic substrates than basalts because of the pronounced over-dispersion, which maximizes mound production per unit area, and much larger mound sizes here.

In semi-arid savannas, abandoned cattle ( Bos taurus ) enclosures or kraals have been demonstrated to be nutrient-hotspots for large herbivores. In this study, we examined the interaction between herbivory and forage quality, structure and diversity at 12 kraals (abandoned for 22 years) paired with savanna control plots in Save Valley Conservancy, Zimbabwe. Plant diversity was not different between sites. Herbaceous cover was higher and woody species density lower on abandoned kraals than control plots. Furthermore, abandoned kraals had higher herbaceous productivity and foliar nutrient concentration for grasses than forbs. The abandoned kraals had higher concentration of soil nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), organic carbon (C) compared with control plots and a slightly acidic pH. Grasses were grazed more than forbs on nutrient-rich abandoned kraals. Only herbaceous biomass for grasses had a significant influence on the interaction between plants and herbivory. No clear relationships were observed between forage quality and herbivory and plant species diversity. Abandoned kraals provide patches of nutrient-rich forage, increasing savanna heterogeneity and in turn influence grazing patterns of large herbivores, and therefore influence ecosystem functioning. A conservation monitoring programme is recommended on such nutrient-rich patches as they serve as foraging-hotspots for herbivores in a dystrophic African semi-arid savanna.