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\"Written by leading researchers, this complete introduction brings together all the theory and tools needed for building robust machine learning in adversarial environments. Discover how machine learning systems can adapt when an adversary actively poisons data to manipulate statistical inference, learn the latest practical techniques for investigating system security and performing robust data analysis, and gain insight into new approaches for designing effective countermeasures against the latest wave of cyber-attacks. Privacy-preserving mechanisms and the near-optimal evasion of classifiers are discussed in detail, and in-depth case studies on email spam and network security highlight successful attacks on traditional machine learning algorithms. Providing a thorough overview of the current state of the art in the field, and possible future directions, this groundbreaking work is essential reading for researchers, practitioners and students in computer security and machine learning, and those wanting to learn about the next stage of the cybersecurity arms race\"-- Provided by publisher.

► Prevalence data on ∼110,000 rotavirus strains identified from 100 countries worldwide during a 12-year period preceding introduction of rotavirus vaccines were collected and presented in this systematic review ► The paper summarizes (i) baseline strain prevalence data for the pre-vaccine era, (ii) analyzes spatiotemporal trends in distribution of circulating strains, and (iii) provides a weighted model to describe a more reliable estimate on the medical importance of individual rotavirus strains. Recently, two rotavirus vaccines have been recommended for routine immunization of infants worldwide. These vaccines proved efficacious during clinical trials and field use in both developing and developed countries, and appear to provide good protection against a range of rotavirus genotypes, including some that are not included in the vaccines. However, since conclusive data that the vaccines will protect against a wide variety of rotavirus strains are still lacking and since vaccines may exert some selection pressure, a detailed picture of global strain prevalence from the pre-rotavirus vaccine era is important to evaluate any potential changes in circulating strains observed after widespread introduction of rotavirus vaccines. Thus, we systematically reviewed rotavirus genotyping studies spanning a 12-year period from 1996 to 2007. In total, ∼110,000 strains were genotyped from 100 reporting countries. Five genotypes (G1–G4, and G9) accounted for 88% of all strains, although extensive geographic and temporal differences were observed. For example, the prevalence of G1 strains declined from 2000 onward, while G3 strains re-emerged, and G9 and G12 strains emerged during the same period. When crude strain prevalence data were weighted by region based on the region's contribution to global rotavirus mortality, the importance of genotypes G1 and G9 strains that were more prevalent in regions with low mortality was reduced and conversely the importance of G8 strains that were more prevalent in African settings with greater contribution to global rotavirus mortality was increased. This study provides the most comprehensive, up-to-date information on rotavirus strain surveillance in the pre-rotavirus vaccine era and will provide useful background to examine the impact of rotavirus vaccine introduction on future strain prevalence.

Since the publication in 2003 of a model to estimate the disease burden of pertussis, new evidence of the protective effect of incomplete pertussis vaccination against severe pertussis has been reported. We revised the model to provide new estimates of regional and global pertussis cases and deaths for children younger than 5 years. We developed a revised model with data from 2014 to estimate pertussis cases and deaths. Pertussis cases were defined according to the WHO clinical case definition, as a coughing illness lasting at least 2 weeks with paroxysms of coughing, inspiratory whooping, or post-tussive vomiting. We used UN population estimates and WHO and UNICEF data on national pertussis immunisation coverage. Estimates were made for vaccine effectiveness against pertussis cases and deaths for one, two, and three doses of vaccination, probability of infection in low and high coverage countries, and case fatality ratios in low and high mortality countries in two age groups: infants younger than 1 year and children aged 1–4 years. We did sensitivity analyses with a range of input parameters to assess the effect of uncertainty of the input parameters on the model outputs. We estimated that there were 24·1 million pertussis cases and 160 700 deaths from pertussis in children younger than 5 years in 2014, with the African region contributing the largest proportions (7·8 million [33%] cases and 92 500 [58%] deaths). 5·1 million (21%) estimated pertussis cases and 85 900 (53%) estimated deaths were in infants younger than 1 year. In the sensitivity analyses, the estimated number of cases ranged from 7 million to 40 million and deaths from 38 000 to 670 000. Our estimates suggest that, compared with the 1999 estimates published in 2003 (30·6 million pertussis cases and 390 000 deaths from pertussis in children younger than 5 years), the numbers of cases and deaths of pertussis have fallen substantially. Model sensitivity emphasised the importance of better surveillance to improve country-level decision making and pertussis control. None.

Norovirus genogroup II genotype 4 (GII.4) has been the predominant cause of viral gastroenteritis since 1996. Here we show that during the winter of 2014–2015, an emergent variant of a previously rare norovirus GII.17 genotype, Kawasaki 2014, predominated in Hong Kong and outcompeted contemporary GII.4 Sydney 2012 in hospitalized cases. GII.17 cases were significantly older than GII.4 cases. Root-to-tip and Bayesian BEAST analyses estimate GII.17 viral protein 1 (VP1) evolves one order of magnitude faster than GII.4 VP1. Residue substitutions and insertion occur in four of five inferred antigenic epitopes, suggesting immune evasion. Sequential GII.4-GII.17 infections are noted, implicating a lack of cross-protection. Virus bound to saliva of secretor histo-blood groups A, B and O, indicating broad susceptibility. This fast-evolving, broadly recognizing and probably immune-escaped emergent GII.17 variant causes severe gastroenteritis and hospitalization across all age groups, including populations who were previously less vulnerable to GII.4 variants; therefore, the global spread of GII.17 Kawasaki 2014 needs to be monitored. Norovirus GII.4 has been predominating in viral gastroenteritis for 20 years. Here the authors report the emergence and predominance of a novel fast-evolving GII.17 lineage norovirus causing viral gastroenteritis in Hong Kong, with a shift in age distribution of affected individuals towards an older age as compared to GII.4.

Rotavirus is a common cause of severe gastroenteritis in young children in Hong Kong (HK) with a high economic burden. This study aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of introducing rotavirus vaccination into the HK Government’s Childhood Immunisation Programme (CIP) and to include the potential protective effect of the vaccine against seizures. A decision-support model was customised to estimate the potential impact, cost-effectiveness and benefit-risk of rotavirus vaccination in children below 5 years over the period 2020–2029 in HK. Two doses of Rotarix® and three doses of RotaTeq® were each compared to no vaccination. Rotavirus treatment costs were calculated from a governmental health sector perspective (i.e., costs of public sector treatment) and an overall health sector perspective (both governmental and patient, i.e., costs of public sector treatment, private sector treatment, transport and diapers). We ran probabilistic and deterministic uncertainty analyses. Introduction of rotavirus vaccination in HK could prevent 49,000 (95% uncertainty interval: ~44,000–54,000) hospitalisations of rotavirus gastroenteritis and seizures and result in ~50 (95% uncertainty interval: ~25–85) intussusception hospitalisations, over the period 2020–2029 (a benefit-risk ratio of ~1000:1), compared to a scenario with no public or private sector vaccine use. The discounted vaccination cost would be US$51–57 million over the period 2020–2029 based on per-course prices of US$72 (Rotarix®) or US$78 (RotaTeq®), but this would be offset by discounted treatment cost savings of US$70 million (government) and US$127 million (governmental and patient health sector). There was a greater than 94% probability that the vaccine could be cost-saving irrespective of the vaccine product or perspective considered. All deterministic ‘what-if’ scenarios were cost-saving from an overall health sector perspective (governmental and patient). Rotavirus vaccination is likely to be cost-saving and have a favourable benefit-risk profile in HK. Based on the assumptions made, our analysis supports its introduction into CIP.

•After introduction of PCV13, serotype replacement was evident in pneumococcal carriage.•Emergence of serogroup/type 15 and 6C was demonstrated in pneumococcal carriage in young children.•An overall reduction in the carriage rate after the introduction of PCV was observed. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) has been included in Hong Kong’s Childhood Immunization Programme since 2009. This study aimed to assess nasopharyngeal pneumococcal carriage rate, serotypes and antimicrobial resistance pattern in young children after the introduction of 13-valent PCV (PCV13). A community-based, cross-sectional surveillance study was performed on healthy infants attending eleven Maternal and Child Health Centres across different parts of Hong Kong. Nasopharyngeal swabs were obtained from healthy children aged 2, 12 and 18months during their visit to the centers for immunization from June 2013 to June 2014. Pneumococcal isolates were serotyped and tested for antimicrobial resistance. Details of the demographics, family composition, vaccination history and medical history was obtained through interview of the guardians. 1541 children were recruited. The overall carriage rate was 5.5%. Children aged 12 and 18months were more likely to have pneumococcal colonization (12months OR: 2.88; 95% CI: 1.41–5.87 and 18months OR: 2.19, 95% CI: 1.05–4.57). Recent respiratory symptoms and presence of siblings younger than 6years were independently associated with pneumococcal carriage. Eighty-four pneumococcal isolates were serotyped. The most prevalent serogroup/types were 15 (15B/C, 16.7%; 15A/F, 9.5%), 6C (15.5%) and 23A (13.1%). Overall, 2.4% of the isolates were heptavalent PCV serotypes, 10.7% were PCV13 serotypes and 89.3% were non-PCV13 serotypes. The proportions of penicillin, cefotaxime and erythromycin non-susceptible isolates were 7.3%, 13.4% and 79.3% respectively. The rate of pneumococcal carriage was low in young children in Hong Kong and compared to previous local studies there appears to have been an overall reduction in the carriage rate after the introduction of PCV. Likely serotype replacement was noted with a predominance of non-vaccine serotypes in pneumococcal carriage with the emergence of serogroup/type 15 and 6C.

Governments in high income countries allocate funding for Official Development Assistance (ODA), and population-based surveys tend to show support for the concept of affluent nations assisting the development of poorer regions. A public opinion survey was conducted in Hong Kong to: (1) assess public support for foreign aid for social development and Hong Kong's current Disaster Relief Fund (DRF); and (2) assess how much respondents thought should be contributed to foreign aid for social development and/or DRF. Interviewers conducted a random telephone survey of Cantonese-speaking Hong Kong citizens aged 18 or above during 2017. Of the 1004 individuals surveyed, 55% (552) agreed that a portion of the government budget should be allocated to the DRF and 37% (372) disagreed. The mean and the median amount of the government budget suggested to be allocated were 5.1% and 2.4% respectively. However only 16% (164) supported the government giving foreign aid for social development, with 79% (793) not supporting, and 5% (47) undecided. The suggested portions of government budget that should be allocated for this purpose were 1.5% (mean) and 0.0% (median). The degree of support for DRF and foreign aid for social development was associated with both age (DRF P < 0.0005; foreign aid for social development P < 0.0005) and education (DRF P = 0.010; foreign aid for social development: P < 0.0005). There was little support for foreign aid for social development amongst the Hong Kong public, in contrast to similar surveys in other countries, but this could be related to the lack of a local tradition of providing ODA to foreign countries. Most respondents supported the current DRF and would like to see a greater proportion of government budget allocated.

Influenza vaccine is not included in the Hong Kong Government’s universal Childhood Immunisation Programme but eligible children can receive subsidised vaccine through the private sector using the Vaccination Subsidy Scheme (VSS). This study examined whether a simple intervention package can increase influenza vaccine uptake in Hong Kong children. Two study samples were enrolled: families of children who had participated in a previous knowledge, attitudes and practices study; and mother-infant pairs recruited from postnatal wards. Control groups received publicly available leaflets about VSS. Intervention groups additionally received: (1) a concise information sheet about influenza and its vaccine; (2) semi-completed forms to utilise the subsidy; (3) contacts of VSS clinics that did not charge above the subsidy; and (4) text message reminders for vaccination. Enrolled mothers were contacted when children were approximately 1 and 2 years old to determine influenza vaccination status of the families and their plan to vaccinate their children. Mothers’ attitudes towards influenza vaccine were assessed at enrolment and at the end of the study. A total of 833 eligible mother-infant pairs were enrolled from the two samples. The intervention package improved influenza vaccine uptake by 22% at one year and 25% at two years of age. Maternal influenza vaccine uptake in intervention group was higher during this two-year period in those who had never been previously vaccinated. Mothers’ self-efficacy regarding the use of influenza vaccine in her child i.e. belief and confidence in her own ability to make a good decision, was also improved with the intervention. A four-component intervention package could improve influenza vaccine uptake in Hong Kong children and their mothers during the first two years of life and depending on vaccine effectiveness could potentially reduce influenza-associated hospital admissions in children below 2 years old by 13–24%.

This study aims to assess evidence for any socioeconomic gradients in childhood obesity and hypertension in a population-representative sample in Hong Kong, China. The data of a stratified random sampled growth survey collected in 2005-2006 was matched with a population by-census. Obesity was defined using the International Obesity Task Force standard and hypertension was defined using the Hong Kong norm table. Family socioeconomic status (SES) was measured by maternal education level. Neighbourhood SES was measured by median household income of the neighbourhood. Multilevel Poisson regression models with robust standard error were used to test the association. Body mass indices of children's parents were included as potential confounders. Intra-school/neighbourhood correlations were adjusted using random factors. Totally 14842 children (age 6-19 years) included in the analysis, in which 16.6% of them were overweight or obese. Children whose mother only completed secondary school or below had higher risk of childhood obesity (RR 1.41, 95% CI 1.13-1.76, p = 0.003) and hypertension (RR 1.18, 95% CI 1.01-1.36, p = 0.03). Meanwhile, children in the lowest neighbourhood SES group had higher risk of childhood underweight (RR 1.61, 95% CI 1.04-2.49, p = 0.03), overweight (RR 1.35, 95% CI 1.05-1.72, p = 0.02), and obesity (RR 2.07, 95% CI 1.11-3.88, p = 0.02). Socioeconomic gradient in childhood obesity and hypertension existed in Hong Kong, one of the most developed cities in China. These results have implications for policymakers and public health experts and highlight the need to monitor trends in other parts of China.

This work extends recent developments in diacetylene-based, sprayable sensors by identification and assessment of formulations which facilitate their use for wearable sensing. Diacetylene-based spray-on sensors have the potential to be a widely deployed sensing technology, as they require no power and can be applied as thin coatings onto surfaces to provide a colorimetric response to target exposure. In responding to radiation, liquid-phase targets, or gas-phase targets specifically determined by the formulation of the sprayable sensor used, this technology is amenable to wearable sensors for measuring exposure to different environmental risks. Here, we provide the means to improve wear resistance, reduce false-positive signals due to wetting, and enhance color fastness for coatings of sprayable, diacetylene-based sensor formulations on cotton fabric. These sensor formulations possess polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), which enhances the coating stability to only 8% color loss due to wear compared to 18–25% without PMMA, while maintaining the inherent ability of diacetylene-component formulations to detect radiation as well as gas or liquid phase analytes. This represents a significant step toward the use of diacetylene-based sensing formulations for wearable sensing. In the future, the form of spray-on sensor materials demonstrated here may find use in wearable sensing applications for detection of cumulative exposure to UV radiation, hydrogen peroxide vapors, or solvent exposure. We expect trends toward applications toward other wearable sensors for environmental monitoring given the well-known customizability in target response of diacetylene-containing monomers by modifying their headgroup chemistry.