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Colon-targeted drug delivery has been used for the delivery of different drugs for the treatment of local diseases, as well as for the systemic delivery of proteins, therapeutic peptides, antiasthmatic drugs, antihypertensive drugs, and antidiabetic agents. Inulin is a polysaccharide mainly of plant origin that is indigestible by human enzymes and hence reaches the colon intact. Its unique properties, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and selective breakdown by colonic microbiota along with its natural abundance, ease of production, and additional nutritional and health impacts make inulin a good candidate for drug delivery. The main aim of this review is to highlight the various formulation approaches for inulin-based colon-targeted drug delivery systems. Inulin-based solid dispersions, complexes, hydrogels, conjugates, microparticles, and nanoparticles are discussed in the review. Inulin and its various modification products could be considered a good vehicle for colon-targeted delivery of drugs belonging to various pharmacological classes to be used in both systemic and local routes. Although in vitro drug release studies have been conducted in many studies included in this review in vivo bioavailability and pharmacokinetics investigations are still lacking. Studies to optimize the drug-loading capacity, release kinetics, stability of inulin-based delivery systems, and scale-up of inulin-based colon-targeted formulations should be sought.

The availability and affordability of safe, effective, accessible, and high-quality essential medicines is a critical benchmark for achieving the right to good health, and it is also one of the goals of the global health development agenda. To that end, it is critical to conduct rigorous studies to identify the major challenges confronting developing countries, particularly those in Africa. The purpose of this review was to identify the major challenges that Africans face in obtaining reasonably priced and readily available essential medicines. Generally the Boolean operators \"AND\" and \"OR\" were employed. Making progress also involves using duplicate checks, field definitions, and comparisons of articles and criteria. The analysis included all English-language papers published in any African country between 2005 and 2022, depending on the year of publication. The technique searches electronic databases for key phrases related to essential medication availability and affordability, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Plos Medicine, and Google Scholar. A total of 91 articles; by using search engines and handpicking including duplicates, were primarily searched. The electronic database search earned 78 articles while only eleven studies met the criteria for review and were reviewed of which 5 (50%) were from East African countries. Inadequate human resources, financial constraints, high cost of available medications on the market, poor inventory management, manual consumption forecasting, inefficiencies in drug registration, and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights agreement regulations are all obstacles to the availability of essential medicines in African nations. This review revealed that in Africa, the availability and affordability of essential medicines face numerous challenges. The primary challenge, according to the review research, is a lack of adequate financing to pay for an appropriate set of essential medications, which account for a significant portion of household spending.

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) was found as the intermediary that transfers genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis in 1961. The emergency use authorization of the two covid-19 mRNA vaccines, BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273, is a significant achievement in the history of vaccine development. Because they are generated in a cell-free environment using the in vitro transcription (IVT) process, mRNA vaccines are risk-free. Moreover, chemical modifications to the mRNA molecule, such as cap structures and changed nucleosides, have proved critical in overcoming immunogenicity concerns, achieving sustained stability, and achieving effective, accurate protein production in vivo. Several vaccine delivery strategies (including protamine, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), polymers, nanoemulsions, and cell-based administration) were also optimized to load and transport RNA into the cytosol. LNPs, which are composed of a cationic or a pH-dependent ionizable lipid layer, a polyethylene glycol (PEG) component, phospholipids, and cholesterol, are the most advanced systems for delivering mRNA vaccines. Moreover, modifications of the four components that make up the LNPs showed to increase vaccine effectiveness and reduce side effects. Furthermore, the introduction of biodegradable lipids improved LNP biocompatibility. Furthermore, mRNA-based therapies are expected to be effective treatments for a variety of refractory conditions, including infectious diseases, metabolic genetic diseases, cancer, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Therefore, the present review aims to provide the scientific community with up-to-date information on mRNA vaccines and their delivery systems.