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An artificial leaf mimicking the function of a natural leaf has recently attracted significant attention due to its minimal space requirement and low cost compared to wired photoelectrochemical and photovoltaic-electrochemical systems for solar hydrogen production. However, it remains a challenge to achieve a practical-size solar water-splitting device that can fulfill the criteria of a solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency above 10%, long-term durability, and scalability. Here, we develop 1 cm 2 perovskite-based photoelectrodes using a defect-less, chlorine-doped formamidinium lead triiodide as photo-absorber and ultraviolet-insensitive tin oxide as an electron transport layers. This device is encapsulated using electrocatalyst-deposited nickel foils, which demonstrates high photocurrent density and high stability for 140 h. Ultimately, we fabricate a scalable mini-module-sized artificial leaf (16 cm 2 ) consisting of a side-by-side/parallel configuration of photoanode and photocathode architecture integrated with a 4 × 4 array of 1 cm 2 photoelectrodes, which maintains a stable ‘module-level’ solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 11.2% in an unbiased solar water-splitting under 1-sun illumination. Here the authors demonstrate a scalable and durable minimodule size artificial leaf with a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of >10% using a metal-halide perovskite-based photoelectrodes encapsulated with metal foil deposited co-catalysts.

Controlling the crystallinity and surface morphology of perovskite layers by methods such as solvent engineering 1 , 2 and methylammonium chloride addition 3 – 7 is an effective strategy for achieving high-efficiency perovskite solar cells. In particular, it is essential to deposit α-formamidinium lead iodide (FAPbI 3 ) perovskite thin films with few defects due to their excellent crystallinity and large grain size. Here we report the controlled crystallization of perovskite thin films with the combination of alkylammonium chlorides (RACl) added to FAPbI 3 . The δ-phase to α-phase transition of FAPbI 3 and the crystallization process and surface morphology of the perovskite thin films coated with RACl under various conditions were investigated through in situ grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. RACl added to the precursor solution was believed to be easily volatilized during coating and annealing owing to dissociation into RA 0 and HCl with deprotonation of RA + induced by RA⋯H + -Cl − binding to PbI 2 in FAPbI 3 . Thus, the type and amount of RACl determined the δ-phase to α-phase transition rate, crystallinity, preferred orientation and surface morphology of the final α-FAPbI 3 . The resulting perovskite thin layers facilitated the fabrication of perovskite solar cells with a power-conversion efficiency of 26.08% (certified 25.73%) under standard illumination. In situ grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the crystallization process and surface morphology of perovskite thin films coated with alkylammonium chlorides, which were used to fabricate high-efficiency perovskite solar cells.

The use of non-toxic or less-toxic solvents in the mass production of solution-processed perovskite solar cells is essential. However, halide perovskites are generally not completely soluble in most non-toxic solvents. Here we report the deposition of dense and uniform α-formamidinium lead triiodide (α-FAPbI 3 ) films using perovskite precursor solutions dissolved in ethanol-based solvent. The process does not require an antisolvent dripping step. The combination of a Lewis base, such as dimethylacetamide (or dimethylsulfoxide), and an alkylammonium chloride (RNH 3 Cl) in ethanol results in the stable solvation of FAPbI 3 . The RNH 3 Cl added to the FAPbI 3 precursor solution is removed during spin-coating and high-temperature annealing via iodoplumbate complexes, such as PbI 2 ·RNH 2 and PbI 2 ·HCl, coordinated with dimethylacetamide (or dimethylsulfoxide). It is possible to form very dense and uniform α-FAPbI 3 perovskite films with high crystallinity by combining several types of RNH 3 Cl. We obtain power conversion efficiencies of 24.3% using a TiO 2 electrode, and of 25.1% with a SnO 2 electrode. Manufacturing of perovskite solar cells would benefit from the avoidance of hazardous solvents and multistep processing. Now, Yun et al. report an ethanol-based perovskite precursor solution that does not need an antisolvent step, enabling devices with 25% efficiency.

For practical photoelectrochemical water splitting to become a reality, highly efficient, stable and scalable photoelectrodes are essential. However, meeting these requirements simultaneously is a difficult task, as improvements in one area can often lead to deteriotation in others. Here, addressing this challenge, we report a formamidinium lead triiodide (FAPbI 3 ) perovskite-based photoanode that is encapsulated by an Ni foil/NiFeOOH electrocatalyst, which demonstrates promising efficiency, stability and scalability. This metal-encapsulated FAPbI 3 photoanode records a photocurrent density of 22.8 mA cm −2 at 1.23 V RHE (where V RHE is voltage with respect to the reversible hydrogen electrode) and shows excellent stability for 3 days under simulated 1-sun illumination. We also construct an all-perovskite-based unassisted photoelectrochemical water splitting system by connecting the photoanode with a same-size FAPbI 3 solar cell in parallel, which records a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 9.8%. Finally, we demonstrate the scale-up of these Ni-encapsulated FAPbI 3 photoanodes into mini-modules up to 123 cm 2 in size, recording a solar-to-hydrogen efficiency of 8.5%. Ideal photoelectrochemical systems for hydrogen production should be highly efficient, stable and scalable. Here the authors report that a perovskite-based system with promising efficiency and stability can be scaled to cells of several square centimetres in area as well as formed into mini-modules with overall area >100 cm 2 .

Glimepiride remains a cost-effective antidiabetic treatment despite its potential risks. However, its interaction with traditional medicines like Ojeok-san (OJS), a commonly used herbal medication, warrants investigation. This open-label, fixed-sequence, two-period, two-treatment crossover study involved 17 healthy male volunteers. Subjects received glimepiride 4 mg once daily for 2 days in period 1, followed by OJS 4.35 g three times daily for 8 days, with concurrent glimepiride administration on the final two days in period 2. Co-administration of OJS with glimepiride resulted in pharmacokinetic changes. The mean area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) from dosing to 24 h post-dosing (AUC 0–24 h ) of glimepiride decreased from 1283.53 ng∙h/mL to 1125.27 ng∙h/mL, and the mean maximum concentration (C max ) reduced from 250.76 ng/mL to 209.38 ng/mL when compared to glimepiride alone. OJS co-administration also prolonged the median time to reach maximum concentration (T max ) and half-life (t 1/2 ). The study demonstrated pharmacokinetic interactions between glimepiride and OJS, showing reduced systemic exposure and altered elimination patterns of glimepiride during co-administration.