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Two species of freshly harvested Bambara nut were analyzed for organophosphate and organochlorine pesticide residue using GC-FID and GC-ECD. The risk associated with the consumption of the Bambara nut was evaluated using the health risk index (HRI) and the probable cancer risk (PCR). A maximum of thirteen (13) organochlorines and eight (8) organophosphate pesticides were determined from both species respectively. The results revealed that almost all the quantified pesticides exceeded their respective FAO maximum residue levels (MRLs). The health risk index (HRI) values of the organochlorines and organophosphates were below 1 in adults indicating little or no risk to adults. While the HRI of the organophosphates and a few values in the organochlorines were above 1 in children indicating that organophosphate pesticides in the freshly harvested white and mixed Bambara nut could pose a great health risk to children within these areas. The Hierarchical Cluster Dendrogram indicated similar sources of the assessed organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides. Graphical abstract

The physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses of four rivers namely: Ajali, Obinna, Karawa and Adada in Ezeagu and Uzo-uwani Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Enugu State, South-eastern Nigeria, were carried out to evaluate their suitability for consumption. Water samples from Ajali River were taken from a point where the river receives brewery effluents and other two points that were impacted by non-point pollution sources. A total of 54 water samples were collected during the dry season, early rainy season and rainy season proper for 2 years. For each trip, nine samples were collected from three sampling points in Ajali and two each in Adada, Obinna and Karawa. The water quality index (WQI) was calculated using the arithmetic index method. Significant seasonal and spatial variations ( p  < 0.05) were evident for sulphate, phosphate, sodium, magnesium, pH, total alkalinity, nitrate and total dissolved solids. Mean values of WQI were 71.75 ± 16.07 57.26 ± 5.39, 60.47 ± 13.12, and 66.75 ± 15.30 for Adada, Obinna, Karawa and Ajali, respectively.

According to the World Alzheimer's report, dementia was estimated to affect 50 million worldwide in 2018, number expected to increase to more than 150 million within 30 years. Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia, accounting on its own for 2/3 of all dementia cases. The initial signs and symptoms of Alzheimer's disease relate to progressive cognitive decline, inexorably progressing until the loss of independence. Neuropsychiatric and behavioral symptoms may occur during the progression of the disease; around 20% of patients without any behavioral symptoms at the diagnosis will experience some of them within 2 years. Consequences are early institutionalization, lower quality of life, of both patients and carers, and more severe cognitive impairment. Treatment options for behavioral symptoms include pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches. The latter are usually preferred, since antipsychotic therapy is not free from several, and often serious, adverse events. However, behavioral symptoms are not always controllable with non-pharmacological intervention. The psychotropic class of medication more frequently prescribed for behavioral symptoms are atypical antipsychotics; among them, risperidone is the only one licensed for the treatment of aggression, in Europe but not in the USA. On that regard, the use of antipsychotic drugs should be limited, due to the increased risk of mortality, stroke, hallucination, and higher risk of relapse after discontinuation. Some new agents are under evaluation, such as pimavanserin and lumateperone. In this review, we are evaluating the current available pharmacological options to treat behavioral symptoms as well as the forthcoming new agents.

The study of trace and major elements in the biosphere has traditionally focused on the transition and basic metals; the rare earth (REMs), alkaline earth (AEMs) and alkali metals (AMs) that equally constitute environmental contaminants are rarely considered especially in the tropics. The levels and spatial variation of some REMs, AEMs and AMs in the 0–50-cm layer of agricultural soils of Ikwo in southeastern Nigeria typing a humid tropical environment were studied. Soil sampling was undertaken at five zones namely north, south, east, west and centre (covering over 60% of the land area) in the 2017 dry season. Four soil samples were collected from each of the four cardinal points (with evidence of mining and agricultural activities), and two from the centre (serving as reference zone), totalling 18. Metal concentrations were determined using inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. The metals were grouped into REMs (Ce, La, Sm), AEMs (Ba, Ca, Mg, Sr) and AMs (Cs, K, Na, Rb). All metals increased in concentration from the north, or the south (for Ce and Sm only), towards the centre. Overall, they were reasonably similar in distribution pattern among the five zones. Cationic ratios did not vary markedly, reflecting the greater role of pedogenesis than anthropogenic activities in the area. Nevertheless, their variations showed more K, Ca, Sr and La enrichments over the other metals. Enrichment factor and pollution index of the REMs showed healthy levels of these elements in the soils. The data from this preliminary study may add to the data pool on levels and occurrence of REMs, AEMs and AMs in largely disturbed ecosystems of the humid tropics.

Non-roof harvested rainwater was studied in Enugu industrial layouts of Emene and Iva Valley to determine the quality of the water. The determination was based on physicochemical parameters and concentration of 7 heavy metals, namely copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). The physicochemical parameters of the rainwater: pH, colour, turbidity, total dissolved solids, conductivity were determined using Hanna water quality checker, and the anions nitrate, sulphate, chloride and phosphate were analysed in accordance to standard methods. The concentrations of Cu, Cr, Ni, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cd were determined using FS240 Agilent Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. The mean values (mg/l) of the metals: Cu, Cr, Ni, Mn, Zn, Pb and Cd in Emene sample are as follows: 0.12 ± 0.01, 0.10 ± 0.02, 0.37 ± 0.02, 0.03 ± 0.01, 0.15 ± 0.01, 0.58 ± 0.11 and 0.17 ± 0.07, while Iva Valley sample recorded 0.08 ± 0.01, 0.04 ± 0.01, 0.82 ± 0.06, 0.09 ± 0.02, 0.26 ± 0.01, 0.48 ± 0.04 and 0.31 ± 0.08, respectively. Some of these values are within or above the standard limit of World Health Organization (WHO) and Nigeria Standard for Drinking Water Quality (NSDWQ). It is important to note that these metals are toxic, persistence and have the potential to bioaccumulate. Therefore, non-roof harvested rainwater is not ready to consume water without some form of treatment. Monitoring, treatment and awareness on the harvesting and use of rainwater should be emphasized.

Rapid industrialization and urbanization result in atmospheric pollution with trace elements precipitated and deposited by rain, affecting human health. This study determined the concentrations and non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks associated with trace elements in rainwater in the vicinity of the Ashaka cement factory. Samples were collected using a bulk sampler fitted with a high-density polythene funnel. A total of 140 samples were collected in 2020 and analyzed for 15 trace elements using ICP-OES. Multivariate analysis was used to identify the sources of the rainwater trace elements. The results show that the abundance of trace elements in the collected samples was in the following order: Fe > Sb > Cu > Ba > V > Sc > Sr > Mn > Zn > Ti > Hg > Al > Mo > Co. Crustal enrichment factors (EFc) indicated that the samples were extremely enriched with Hg, Sb, Cu, and Mo, moderately enriched with Zn, Ba, V, Co, Sr, Cr, and Sc, and unenriched with Fe, Mn, Ti, and Al. Chronic daily intake (CDI) for both the ingestion and dermal pathways was in the order Fe > Cu > Ba > Cr > V > Mn > Zn > Hg > Mo. The hazard index (HI) was > 1 through the ingestion pathway, indicating a likely non-carcinogenic advertising effect. Similarly, the carcinogenic risk (CR) exceeded the (1.0 × 10 –4 —1.0 × 10 –4 ) acceptable limit for children and adults, indicating the likely development of cancer among consumers. This revealed that the elements present in rainwater are anthropogenic and are brought about by cement production.

Organochlorine pesticide residues, OCPs are group of synthetic chemicals containing chlorine, hydrogen, carbon and are highly hydrophobic, slowly biodegradable. They are commonly used as insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and can accumulate in plants and animals with a potential to long range transport. These chlorinated hydrocarbons are persistence, toxic, hazardous and have been linked to various environmental contaminations and health challenges such as cancer, neurological damage, immunological disorder and reproductive problems. This study aimed at determining the levels of OCPs and their health risk in order to ascertain the status of consuming these vegetables from this part of Nigeria. The study investigated the levels and health risk of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) residues in vegetables (spinach, jute leaf, pumpkin leaf, okro, tomatoes, garden egg and cucumber) cultivated around rivers Niger-Benue confluence in Lokoja, North Central, Nigeria. Concentrations of OCPs were determined in vegetable samples collected from major markets in five local government areas in the vicinity of the confluence after extraction by sonication using 1:1 dichloromethane – hexane mixture as solvent followed by clean–up with activated silica gel. Recovery test was carried out to ensure the accuracy of the method. Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS) was used in the determination of the OCPs. The health risk indices (HRI) (which is a technique used to assess and communicate the level of risk posed by environmental pollutants) of consuming the analysed vegetables were assessed according to the USEPA guidelines, whereby the estimated daily intake (EDI) was compared with the acceptable daily intake (ADI). The average recovery of 76% was obtained. The highest non carcinogenic health index values of 8.33, 6.32 and 4.61 were found for dieldrin, heptachlor epoxide and heptachlor in jute leaves while the highest potential carcinogenic health index value of 37.020 was found for dieldrin also in jute leaves. The HRI values of heptachlor, its epoxide and dieldrin obtained exceeded the standard limits (1 mg/kg). The values of OCPs detected in analyzed samples were very much higher than standard limit of 1 mg/kg established by USEPA and are likely to pose a threat to human health.

Dementia affects about 47 million people worldwide, number expected to exponentially increase within 30 years. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common dementia type, accounting on its own for almost 70% of all dementia cases. Behavioral and psychological symptoms (BPSD) frequently occur during the disease progression; to treat agitation, aggressiveness, delusions and hallucinations, the use of antipsychotic drugs should be limited, due to their safety issues. In this literature review regarding the use of antipsychotics for treating BPSD in dementia, the advantages and limitation of antipsychotic drugs have been evaluated. The available medications for the management of behavioral and psychological symptoms are the antipsychotics, classed into typical and atypical, depending on their action on dopamine and serotonin receptors. First generation, or typical, antipsychotics exhibit lack of tolerability and display a broad range of side effects such as sedation, anticholinergic effects and extrapyramidal symptoms. Atypical, or second generation, antipsychotics bind more selectively to dopamine receptors and simultaneously block serotonin receptors, resulting in higher tolerability. High attention should be paid to the management of therapy interruption or switch between antipsychotics, to limit the possible rebound effect. Several switching strategies may be adopted, and clinicians should “tailor” therapies, accounting for patients’ symptoms, comorbidities, polytherapies and frailty.

An imbalance in the environment’s composition leads to significant effect on human activities such as farming. Of importance are heavy metals which are introduced anthropogenically or naturally. This calls for environmental monitoring and subsequent remediation if needed. An environmental monitoring exercise was conducted on Ikwo soils of Ebonyi State, eastern Nigeria with the aim of determining concentration levels for possible remediation. A total of 18 soil composite samples taken at 0–50 cm below soil surface from fallowed and cultivated soils not fertilized were subjected to heavy metal analyses and fertility indices like: organic matter (OM), cation exchange capacity (CEC), % total nitrogen (%TN), organic carbon (OC), and salinity. A correlation at 95% confidence level between geo-accumulations (I geo ) of the various heavy metals with salinity, OM, and CEC of the sampled soils reveals that I geo could be a contributing factor to the fertility status of the soils. With the aid of inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer (ICP-AES), the distribution pattern was determined as Mn> Fe> Zn>Cu> Mo> Cd> V>Hg>Ti> Ni>Bi> Pb> Co>Ag>Au> Cr>Pd>Pt. The I geo of the heavy metals in the study area varied from heavily to extremely contaminated levels. A remediation exercise was recommended on Ikwo soils due to their high salinity level and low CEC.

Pso rospermum febrifugum ( P. febrifugum ) is an active anti-inflammatory medicinal plant and for the treatment of various illnesses [ 7 ]. The presence of 16 EPA priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was investigated in the plant stem bark extract and soil. The plant samples were extracted with ethanol while the soil samples were extracted with hexane-dichloromethane (3:1) mixture according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemist (AOAC) method. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) was used for the determination. Recovery experiments were carried out to validate the accuracy of the analytical methods employed. Carcinogenic equivalent potency of PAHs was determined according to EPA method on the basis of Benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (B[a]peq). Pearson correlation coefficient was employed to measure the strength of association between the concentration of the PAHs in the plant and the soil. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF) of the contaminants was carried out. Source of PAHs was derived from diagnostic concentration ratios which were calculated using the concentration of specified PAHs or as a common group from a common source. The recoveries for PAHs were between 82.58 and 99.85%. The concentrations of PAHs in P. febrifugum stem bark ranged from (0.089 ± 0.145–0.370 ± 0.354 µg/kg) to soil (0.060 ± 0.050–0.716 ± 0.119 µg/kg). The diagnostic ratio values of PAHs were in this order: Phen/Anth < 10, Anth/ (Anth + Phen) > 0.1, Flu/ (Flu + Pyr) > 0.4, Pyr/Bap < 50 and Bbf/Bkf < 3.9 indicating pyrolysis as the major source of PAHs in the studied area. The B[a]P eq concentrations of PAHs in the analyzed plant samples varied between 0.00175 and 0.22 µg/kg, while in soil samples 0.0358 and 0.486 µg/kg. The BAF values of PAHs ranged from 0.14 to 4.85. Although, the concentrations of PAHs detectable in P. febrifugum stem bark and soil samples were far lower than the permissible limits for medicinal plants and soil set by FAO/WHO [ 9 ]. The data showed that there is no potential health danger of PAHs contamination to the consumers of P. febrifugum from the study area. However, assessment of medicinal plants for possible contaminants is necessary for safe consumption.