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Whole exome sequencing has proven to be a powerful tool for understanding the genetic architecture of human disease. Here we apply it to more than 2,500 simplex families, each having a child with an autistic spectrum disorder. By comparing affected to unaffected siblings, we show that 13% of de novo missense mutations and 43% of de novo likely gene-disrupting (LGD) mutations contribute to 12% and 9% of diagnoses, respectively. Including copy number variants, coding de novo mutations contribute to about 30% of all simplex and 45% of female diagnoses. Almost all LGD mutations occur opposite wild-type alleles. LGD targets in affected females significantly overlap the targets in males of lower intelligence quotient (IQ), but neither overlaps significantly with targets in males of higher IQ. We estimate that LGD mutation in about 400 genes can contribute to the joint class of affected females and males of lower IQ, with an overlapping and similar number of genes vulnerable to contributory missense mutation. LGD targets in the joint class overlap with published targets for intellectual disability and schizophrenia, and are enriched for chromatin modifiers, FMRP-associated genes and embryonically expressed genes. Most of the significance for the latter comes from affected females. Family-based exome sequencing in a large autism study has identified 27 high-confidence gene targets and accurately estimates the contribution of both de novo gene-disrupting and missense mutations to the incidence of simplex autism, with target genes in affected females overlapping those in males of lower but not higher IQ; targets also overlap known targets for intellectual disability and schizophrenia, and are enriched for chromatin modifiers, FMRP-associated genes and embryonically expressed genes. Autism-linked genetic factors analysed Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a broad group of brain development disorders, including autism, childhood disintegrative disorder and Asperger's syndrome, characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviour and restricted interests. Two groups reporting in this issue of Nature have used large-scale whole-exome sequencing to examine the contribution of inherited and germline de novo mutations to ASD risk. Silvia De Rubeis et al . analysed DNA samples from 3,871 autism cases and 9,937 ancestry-matched or parental controls and identify more than 100 autosomal genes that are likely to affect risk for the disease. De novo loss-of-function mutations were detected in more than 5% of autistic subjects. Many of the associated gene products appear to function in synaptic, transcriptional, and chromatin remodelling pathways. Ivan Iossifov et al . sequenced exomes from more than 2,500 families, each with one child with ASD. They identify 27 high-confidence gene targets and estimate that 13% of de novo missense mutations and 43% of de novo 'likely gene-disrupting' (LGD) mutations contribute to 12% and 9% of diagnoses, respectively.

Scurfy ( sf ) is an X-linked recessive mouse mutant resulting in lethality in hemizygous males 16–25 days after birth, and is characterized by overproliferation of CD4+CD8– T lymphocytes, extensive multiorgan infiltration and elevation of numerous cytokines 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Similar to animals that lack expression of either Ctla-4 (refs. 5 , 6 ) or Tgf-β (refs. 7 , 8 ), the pathology observed in sf mice seems to result from an inability to properly regulate CD4+CD8– T-cell activity 3 , 9 . Here we identify the gene defective in sf mice by combining high-resolution genetic and physical mapping with large-scale sequence analysis. The protein encoded by this gene (designated Foxp3 ) is a new member of the forkhead/winged-helix family of transcriptional regulators and is highly conserved in humans. In sf mice, a frameshift mutation results in a product lacking the forkhead domain. Genetic complementation demonstrates that the protein product of Foxp3 , scurfin, is essential for normal immune homeostasis.

The mechanisms of liver injury associated with chronic HCV infection, as well as the individual roles of both viral and host factors, are not clearly defined. However, it is becoming increasingly clear that direct cytopathic effects, in addition to immune-mediated processes, play an important role in liver injury. Gene expression profiling during multiple time-points of acute HCV infection of cultured Huh-7.5 cells was performed to gain insight into the cellular mechanism of HCV-associated cytopathic effect. Maximal induction of cell-death-related genes and appearance of activated caspase-3 in HCV-infected cells coincided with peak viral replication, suggesting a link between viral load and apoptosis. Gene ontology analysis revealed that many of the cell-death genes function to induce apoptosis in response to cell cycle arrest. Labeling of dividing cells in culture followed by flow cytometry also demonstrated the presence of significantly fewer cells in S-phase in HCV-infected relative to mock cultures, suggesting HCV infection is associated with delayed cell cycle progression. Regulation of numerous genes involved in anti-oxidative stress response and TGF-beta1 signaling suggest these as possible causes of delayed cell cycle progression. Significantly, a subset of cell-death genes regulated during in vitro HCV infection was similarly regulated specifically in liver tissue from a cohort of HCV-infected liver transplant patients with rapidly progressive fibrosis. Collectively, these data suggest that HCV mediates direct cytopathic effects through deregulation of the cell cycle and that this process may contribute to liver disease progression. This in vitro system could be utilized to further define the cellular mechanism of this perturbation.

As information from omics experiments begins populating databases on a grand scale, the ability to stitch together such vast amounts of data and thereby investigate, model and understand biological processes at a systems level will be crucial to the pursuit of new therapeutic targets. A snapshot of realized and potential applications of systems biology in antiviral research is presented.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) of exomes and genomes has accelerated the identification of genes involved in Mendelian phenotypes. However, many NGS studies fall short of identifying causal variants, with estimates for success rates as low as 25% for uncovering the pathological variant underlying disease etiology. An important reason for such failures is familial locus heterogeneity, where within a single pedigree causal variants in two or more genes underlie Mendelian trait etiology. As examples of intra- and inter-sibship familial locus heterogeneity, we present 10 consanguineous Pakistani families segregating hearing impairment due to homozygous variants in two different hearing impairment genes and a European-American pedigree in which hearing impairment is caused by four variants in three different genes. We have identified 41 additional pedigrees with syndromic and nonsyndromic hearing impairment for which a single previously reported hearing impairment gene has been identified but only segregates with the phenotype in a subset of affected pedigree members. We estimate that locus heterogeneity occurs in 15.3% (95% confidence interval: 11.9%, 19.9%) of the families in our collection. We demonstrate novel approaches to apply linkage analysis and homozygosity mapping (for autosomal recessive consanguineous pedigrees), which can be used to detect locus heterogeneity using either NGS or SNP array data. Results from linkage analysis and homozygosity mapping can also be used to group sibships or individuals most likely to be segregating the same causal variants and thereby increase the success rate of gene identification.