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Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is the process of transferring fecal microbiota from a healthy donor into the gastrointestinal tract of a recipient. Although many mechanisms of FMT are still not completely understood at present, it has been described that the treatment of various gastrointestinal diseases in different species, including humans, is significantly improved by FMT therapy. Since the first report on FMT therapy in veterinary medicine in small mammals numerous cases have been reported, but little information has been published on the therapeutic effects of FMT treatment in reptiles. The present case report describes the effects of orally administered fecal microbiota transplantation in a Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise ( ) suffering from chronic gastrointestinal disorders. A nine-year-old, 330 g, intact female Mediterranean spur-thighed tortoise ( ) from the animal owner's own offspring was presented for consultation due to decreased general condition, anorexia and sialorrhea following oral intake of a lettuce species ( ) known for its poisonous plant ingredients (sesquiterpene lactones) 3 weeks prior to presentation. Pre-existing conditions were not reported. Clinical examination revealed sialorrhea and a reduced general condition. Diagnostic procedures included blood chemistry, radiography and ultrasonography. Despite repeated treatment attempts with various medical regimes over 158 days, the tortoise continued showing variable recurring gastrointestinal symptoms. An orally administered FMT was initiated and continued for a total of 3 weeks. Gastrointestinal signs improved rapidly within 1 week and resolved completely after 3 weeks. Over a follow up period of 9 months, no symptom recurrence or adverse effects were monitored. This case report describes the first successful trial of fecal microbiota transplantation in chelonians. The outcome indicates that this therapeutic approach may be beneficial not only to small animals but also for the therapy of gastrointestinal disorders in reptiles, especially those cases with insufficient conventional therapy results.

Salmonella are considered a part of the normal reptile gut microbiota, but have also been associated with disease in reptiles. Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS) can pose a serious health threat to humans, especially children, and an estimated 6% of human sporadic salmonellosis cases have been attributed to direct or indirect contact with reptiles, although the exact number is not known. Two literature searches were conducted for this review. The first evaluated reports of the prevalence of Salmonella in the intestinal tracts of healthy reptiles. Salmonella were most commonly detected in snakes (56.0% overall), followed by lizards (36.9%) and tortoises (34.2%), with lower detection rates reported for turtles (18.6%) and crocodilians (9%). Reptiles in captivity were significantly more likely to shed Salmonella than those sampled in the wild. The majority of Salmonella strains described in reptiles belonged to subspecies I (70.3%), followed by subspecies IIIb (29.7%) and subspecies II (19.6%). The second literature search focused on reports of RAS, revealing that the highest number of cases was associated with contact with turtles (35.3%), followed by lizards (27.1%) and snakes (20.0%). Reptiles associated with RAS therefore did not directly reflect prevalence of Salmonella reported in healthy representatives of a given reptile group. Clinical symptoms associated with RAS predominantly involved the gastrointestinal tract, but also included fever, central nervous symptoms, problems with circulation, respiratory symptoms and others. Disease caused by Salmonella in reptiles appears to be dependent on additional factors, including stress, inadequate husbandry and hygiene, and other infectious agents. While it has been suggested that reptile serovars may cause more severe disease than human-derived strains, and some data is available on invasiveness of individual strains in cell culture, limited information is available on potential mechanisms influencing invasiveness and immune evasion in reptiles and in RAS. Strategies to mitigate the spread of Salmonella through reptiles and to reduce RAS focus mostly on education and hygiene, and have often been met with some success, but additional efforts are needed. Many aspects regarding Salmonella in reptiles remain poorly understood, including the mechanisms by which Salmonella persist in reptile hosts without causing disease.

Spider morph ball pythons are a frequently-bred designer morph with striking alterations of the skin color pattern. We created high-resolution μCT-image series through the otic region of the skulls, used 3D-reconstruction software for rendering anatomical models, and compared the anatomy of the semicircular ducts, sacculus and ampullae of wildtype Python regius (ball python) with spider morph snakes. All spider morph snakes showed the wobble condition (i.e., twisting movements of the head, impaired locomotion, difficulty striking or constricting prey items). We describe the inner ear structures in wildtype and spider morph snakes and report a deviant morphology of semicircular canals, ampullae and sacculus in the latter. We also report about associated differences in the desmal skull bones of spider morph snakes, which were characterized by wider semicircular canals, ampullae widened and difficult to discern in μCT, a deformed crus communis, and a small sacculus with a highly deviant X-ray morphology as compared to wildtype individuals. We observed considerable intra- and interindividual variability of these features. This deviant morphology in spider morph snakes could easily be associated with an impairment of sense of equilibrium and the observed neurological wobble condition. Limitations in sample size prevent statistical analyses, but the anatomical evidence is strong enough to support an association between the wobble condition and a malformation of the inner ear structures. A link between artificially selected alterations in pattern and specific color design with neural-crest associated developmental malformations of the statoacoustic organ as known from other vertebrates is discussed.

As part of a Germany-wide project that evaluates strategies for the reduction of multi-resistant bacteria along the poultry production chain, the impact of different hatching egg disinfectants on hatchability and health of the broiler chicks was evaluated. Animal trials were conducted with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase- (ESBL) producing Escherichia (E.) coli contaminated hatching eggs and six disinfection protocols that used formaldehyde, hydrogen peroxide, low-energy electron irradiation, peracetic acid and an essential oil preparation. Each protocol was tested on a group of 50 chicks. Equally sized positive and negative control groups were carried along for each trial. Hatchability, mortality and body weight were recorded as performance parameters. During necropsy of half of the animals in each group on day 7 and 14 respectively, macroscopic abnormalities, body weight, weights of liver and gut convolute were recorded and a range of tissue samples for histological examination were collected as part of the health assessment. A decrease in hatchability was recorded for spray application of essential oils. Body weight development was overall comparable, in several groups even superior, to the Ross308 performance objectives, but a reduced performance was seen in the hydrogen peroxide group. Histologically, lymphoid follicles were regularly seen in all sampled organs and no consistent differences were observed between contaminated and non-contaminated groups. Significances were infrequently and inconsistently seen. In conclusion, remarkable findings were a decrease in hatchability caused by the essential oils spray application and a reduced body weight development in the hydrogen peroxide group. Therefore, the essential oils preparation as spray application was deemed inappropriate in practice, while the application of hydrogen peroxide was considered in need of further research. The other trial results indicate that the tested hatching egg disinfectants present a possible alternative to formaldehyde.

Bacterial pathogens are often involved in dermatitis in reptiles. Exact identification of reptile-specific but otherwise uncommon bacterial species may be challenging. However, identification is crucial to evaluate the importance of the detected bacterial species. The aim of this study was to assess the number of aerobic bacterial isolates cultured from skin-derived samples of reptiles which were not reliably identified by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), and to determine their identity. Routine bacterial diagnostics were performed on 235 skin samples, and 417 bacterial isolates were analysed by MALDI-TOF MS. The isolates were grouped into categories based on their first score: category I ([greater than or equal to] 2.00), category II ([greater than or equal to] 1.70 and < 2.00), and category III ( 98.00% for genus identification, and > 99.00% for species identification. The majority of bacterial isolates were in category I (85.1%) or category II (8.4%). In category III (6.5%) results achieved at first by MALDI-TOF MS corresponded to the results of the molecular analysis in 8.0% of isolates at the species level and in 24.0% at the genus level. Bacterial isolates classified as category III were heterogenic in genus (e.g. Chryseobacterium, Devriesea, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Uruburuella), and some have only been described in reptiles so far. Most of the aerobic bacterial isolates cultured from reptile skin achieved high scores by MALDI-TOF MS. However, in the majority of category III isolates MALDI-TOF MS results were different from those of the molecular analysis. This strengthens the need to carefully examine low-scored results for plausibility and to be familiar with the occurrence and morphology of relevant reptile-specific bacterial species (e.g. Devriesea agamarum) as well as with the limits of the database used.

Background Mycoplasmas are an important cause of respiratory diseases in tortoises. In snakes, evidence of mycoplasma infections has been found almost exclusively in pythons. To better understand the occurrence of these bacteria in other snake species, samples submitted for routine testing for respiratory pathogens were also tested for mycoplasma by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 640 samples (mostly oral swabs) from snakes of 5 different families (Boidae n = 114, Colubridae n = 109, Elapidae n = 34, Pythonidae n = 301 and Viperidae n = 82) were included in the study. A genus-specific PCR (PCR1) developed for the detection of Mycoplasma [ Mycoplasmopsis ] agassizii and a pan-mycoplasma PCR (PCR2) were used. PCR products were sequenced for validation and phylogenetic analysis was performed. The sampled animals were from various owners and collections, all in human care at the time of sampling. Clinical background information was not provided. Results Using PCR1, mycoplasmas were detected in 175 (175/640, 27%) samples (Boidae: 7/114, 6%; Colubridae: 3/109, 3%; Elapidae: 8/34, 24%; Pythonidae: 155/301, 51%; Viperidae: 2/82, 2%). A higher percentage of positive results were obtained using PCR2 (258/640, 40%; Boidae: 9/114, 8%; Colubridae: 25/109, 23%; Elapidae: 19/34, 56%; Pythonidae: 172/301, 57%; Viperidae: 33/82, 40%). The detected bacteria can be divided into at least 6 genetically diverse clusters representing different genera and species based on multiple sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis. Conclusions These results show that diverse mycoplasmas are found in pythons and other snakes. Further investigations are necessary to evaluate the role of various mycoplasmas in respiratory diseases in snakes.

A pilot study was conducted with 5th–8th semester students comparing a 3D-printed simulator and a virtual 3D simulation. This study’s aim was the comparison of these two resources in three different settings. Assessment of the resources’ suitability as teaching devices for performing a central plastrotomy in chelonians took place. One group used the simulator, while the other group used the simulation to practice this method in a preparation course. Afterwards, the practical skills of 28 students were validated in an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). The students evaluated their respective resources (simulator and simulation). Additionally, 10 practicing veterinarians evaluated the simulator and rated its fidelity as suitable for practicing a plastrotomy. Furthermore, the self-efficacy of the two student groups was compared with each other. An increase in subjective self-assessment of skills in both groups was identified. Students trained on the simulator achieved better results in the OSCE and self-assessment of skills than those trained with the simulation. However, the differences between the groups regarding these aspects were mostly not significant. This study indicates that a 3D-printed chelonian simulator serves as an appropriate teaching device for veterinary students and is a useful addition to established teaching methods, like using cadavers.

Some trace elements are essential for the health of vertebrates, but little is known about their function, the amounts required, and the factors influencing their metabolism in tortoises. The aim of this study was therefore to measure trace elements (chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), selenium (Se), zinc (Zn)) in heparinized blood plasma of Hermann’s tortoises (Testudo hermanni) (n = 520) from March to September 2022 using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and to establish specific reference intervals. Additionally, the influence of sex, season, and region of sample collection on the measured values were evaluated. Significant (p ≤ 0.05) sex-specific differences were found for Cu, Mg, and Mn; seasonal differences were found for Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Se; and the region in which the tortoises were kept significantly impacted Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mo, and Se levels. The results show that all of these factors should be consider when establishing and interpreting blood trace element levels in tortoises.

In avian medicine, sonographic examination is an important diagnostic tool for heart diseases. Little is known about the diagnostic relevance of the Doppler blood flow profiles of parrots. In the present study, sonographic examinations of Congo grey parrots with atherosclerosis were evaluated retrospectively to gain more knowledge about their pulmonary and aortic systolic blood flow. The shapes of their Doppler sonographic blood flow profiles were quantified by the determination of the acceleration and deceleration phases. The investigations showed the differences between the aortic flow profile, with fast rising velocities, and the pulmonary flow profile, which has a round shape, in grey parrots. Diseased parrots with ultrasonographic signs of a right heart failure, such as an enlarged right ventricle and/or insufficiencies of the right atrioventricular and/or pulmonary valve, showed a significantly shorter acceleration and longer deceleration phase than parrots without heart failure or with sonographic signs of left heart failure only. The correlation of the shape of the pulmonary Doppler blood flow profile with the diameter of the left atrium, the systolic and diastolic diameter of the right ventricle, the fractional shortening of the left and right ventricle, and the mean aortic and pulmonary blood flow illustrates the importance of these sonographic parameters in the investigation of the function of the right ventricle in heart disease. Our examination showed that the shape of the pulmonary Doppler blood flow profile of Congo grey parrots provides important information about the pressure load on the right ventricle in heart diseases, which is comparable to that in small animal and human medicine.

An adult, 362 g, male, intact inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) was admitted to a veterinary clinic due to a temporary cloacal prolapse and a two-week history of reduced overall condition and forage intake. Physical examination revealed an approximately 2 × 1 cm round-shaped, rigid intracoelomic tissue mass. Multiple sand deposits were present on the cloacal mucous membranes, though no signs of cloacal prolapse were present. The lizard was otherwise responsive but showed reduced body tension and movement behavior. Initial fecal examination revealed a high-grade oxyuriasis. A 2 × 1.5 cm sized intracoelomic, well-vascularized, round-shaped mass was subsequently visualized by ultrasonography. After a two-day stabilization therapy, the intracoelomic mass was removed by performing a standard ventral coeliotomy under general anesthesia. Histopathological examination of the excised mass revealed an acinar pancreatic adenocarcinoma with infiltration of the peritumorous connective soft tissue. The lizard remained at the clinic for a further seven days. Its postsurgical condition improved slowly. However, the lizard started regular forage intake 10 days after surgery, and general behavior enhanced constantly within the following three weeks. The animal was presented for a follow-up six weeks after surgery, showing bright and alert behavior with no signs of disease or illness. The lizard was re-examined 20 months after the initial presentation due to a reduced overall condition and reduced food intake. Blood chemistry evaluation revealed markedly decreased protein parameters, and moderate ascites was identified ultrasonographically. A distinct association with the preceding neoplastic disease could not be made, and the lizard returned to its regular condition under supportive therapy within three weeks. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of successful treatment of a pancreatic carcinoma in a bearded dragon.