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The paper observes the Russian aggression against Ukraine in the context of the United Nations system of maintenance of international peace and security, analyzing both the functionality of the UN bodies in performing their functions under the UN Charter, as well as observing the conflict in light of the UN Charter provisions on the use of force and self-defense, and in light of some other possible grounds for the use of force, not provided by the UN Charter. The paper demonstrates how the persistent problem of the Security Council deadlock, which manifested itself also in the case of the Russian aggression on Ukraine, has led to the General Assembly assuming the primary role in maintenance of international peace and security. The Ukrainian crisis has thus revived the debate on the long-awaited structural reform of the United Nations, but also on the revisiting the existing rules on the use of force, primarily the right to self-defense, which is too easily being used by states as a pretext for their unlawful actions.

The article explores the (non)application of the \"responsibility to protect\" (RtoP) doctrine in crises in Libya and Syria. When violent conflicts between the government and the opposition arose in both countries in 2011, different international bodies reported on mass atrocity crimes committed by the government forces against civilians. As rulers of Libya and Syria showed no intention of halting those atrocities, it was expected that the international community would intervene and act under RtoP, as agreed among the states at the 2005 World Summit. In Libya, the Security Council acted pursuant to the RtoP doctrine and passed the resolution authorizing the use of force aimed at saving civilian lives. In the case of Syria, however, the Security Council was deadlocked by the Russian and Chinese veto and no resolution employing RtoP could have been adopted. The paper thus analyzes these two cases, by paying special emphasis to the reasons behind such a disparate reaction of the Security Council in similar circumstances.

This article analyses the shift from the state-centric system of international law to the system in which other entities such as intergovernmental organisations, and individuals enter the sphere of international legal personality. The main focus falls on the influence of human rights development and the emergence of individual criminal responsibility on the international legal personality of an individual. In spite of the significant changes in the domain of international legal personality, the majority view remains that individuals have not gained the status of international law subjects. This conclusion is based on the notion that individuals, by having rights and duties under international law, acquire some form of international legal personality in certain areas, but that it is states which make this possible. As much as this holds true, the growing role of the individual in international law should be properly acknowledged. Although individuals are not likely ever to become international law subjects equal to states, such identity is not necessary for their recognition as international law subjects.

Kada je 2011. godine libijski diktator Muammar Gaddafi odgovorio na pobunu protiv svoje vlasti teškim kršenjima ljudskih prava, Vijeće sigurnosti je, pozivajući se na načelo “odgovornosti pružanja zaštite” (RtoP) usvojilo Rezoluciju 1973, kojom je ovlastilo države na upotrebu oružane sile kako bi se zaustavilo stradavanje civila u Libiji. Taj čin Vijeća sigurnosti dao je naslutiti da je načelo RtoP zaživjelo i da će ono poslužiti kao učinkovito sredstvo u borbi za očuvanje ljudskih prava i u budućim slučajevima. No sukob u Siriji koji je uslijedio nedugo nakon toga pokazao je da su takva predviđanja bila preuranjena. Stalne članice Vijeća sigurnosti u slučaju Sirije nisu zauzele jedinstveni stav pa rezolucija kojom bi se ovlastilo države na upotrebu sile s ciljem sprječavanja humanitarne katastrofe nije usvojena. U članku se analiziraju sukobi u Libiji i Siriji te reakcija međunarodne zajednice na svaki od njih. Osobito se istražuju razlozi različitog postupanja Vijeća sigurnosti u dvama slučajevima koji, iako se razlikuju u nizu značajki, imaju bitnu zajedničku karakteristiku – kršenje ljudskih prava stanovništva od strane središnje vlasti. Zaključak je članka da kod odlučivanja u Vijeću sigurnosti o poduzimanju oružanih intervencija, pa bile one uzrokovane i humanitarnim razlozima, države ne nastupaju principijelno, već u praksi uvijek gledaju i svoje strateške i druge interese. Tek kada ti interesi koincidiraju s humanitarnom katastrofom, RtoP načelo – točnije, njegov aspekt “reakcije” – biva primijenjeno.

After the dissolution of the Federal Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia, Croatia and Slovenia ? former socialist republics and now independent states ? had to define their interstate borders. Since there were no maritime boundaries in Yugoslavia between the republics, an uti possidetis principle, which had been used for determining land borders, could not have been applied at sea. It was therefore on states to agree on the maritime delimitation.Croatia and Slovenia, however, were not able to settle their dispute by diplomatic negotiations and they agreed to submit the dispute for arbitration. However, during the course of the proceedings, Slovenia got involved into an ex parte communication with one of the members of the Arbitral Tribunal, which resulted in Croatia?s withdrawal from the proceedings.The Tribunal nevertheless decided that it had jurisdiction to continue with the proceedings and ultimately decided on the merits of the case. Croatia refuses to implement the Tribunal?s decision, while Slovenia insists on its implementation. It is yet to be seen how the settlement of this dispute will proceed, however it is interesting and legally challenging to analyze the Tribunal?s award, which introduces a rather unusual solution to the delimitation issue.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is a common cause of chronic liver disease and is closely associated with metabolic abnormalities and cardiovascular risks. Butyrate, a short-chain fatty acid produced by gut microbiota, has the potential to enhance liver health by modulating inflammation and supporting gut barrier integrity. This study aimed to investigate and compare the effects of sodium butyrate and calcium butyrate in patients with MASLD. In this single-center, randomized clinical trial, 181 patients with MASLD were enrolled and assigned to receive either sodium butyrate (n = 121) or calcium butyrate (n = 60) supplementation at a daily dose of 1000 mg. The primary endpoint was the change in liver steatosis, measured using the Controlled Attenuation Parameter (CAP) via FibroScan®. Secondary endpoints included liver stiffness, biochemical parameters, hepatic steatosis and fatty liver indices, fecal calprotectin levels, stool short-chain fatty acid levels, and microbiome composition. A subgroup analysis compared responders (a ≥ 5% reduction in CAP) to non-responders. There were no significant changes in CAP values for either group (ΔCAP: sodium butyrate, 0.84; calcium butyrate, −0.23; p = 0.70). Sodium butyrate significantly reduced serum trimethylamine N-oxide and fatty liver index, while calcium butyrate led to a decrease in fecal calprotectin levels. Responders demonstrated a lower body mass index, higher levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and HbA1c, and distinct microbiome profiles, characterized by lower abundance of Subdoligranulum and higher abundance of Catenibacterium. Although butyrate supplementation did not significantly improve liver steatosis as measured by CAP, the differing effects on metabolic and inflammatory markers suggest that there may be potential benefits for specific subgroups of patients with MASLD.

Infections with shiga toxin-producing bacteria, like enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli and Shigella dysenteriae, represent a serious medical problem. No specific and effective treatment is available for patients with these infections, creating a need for the development of new therapies. Recombinant lactic acid bacterium Lactococcus lactis was engineered to bind Shiga toxin by displaying novel designed albumin binding domains (ABD) against Shiga toxin 1 B subunit (Stx1B) on their surface. Functional recombinant Stx1B was produced in Escherichia coli and used as a target for selection of 17 different ABD variants (named S1B) from the ABD scaffold-derived high-complex combinatorial library in combination with a five-round ribosome display. Two most promising S1Bs (S1B22 and S1B26) were characterized into more details by ELISA, surface plasmon resonance and microscale thermophoresis. Addition of S1Bs changed the subcellular distribution of Stx1B, completely eliminating it from Golgi apparatus most likely by interfering with its retrograde transport. All ABD variants were successfully displayed on the surface of L. lactis by fusing to the Usp45 secretion signal and to the peptidoglycan-binding C terminus of AcmA. Binding of Stx1B by engineered lactococcal cells was confirmed using flow cytometry and whole cell ELISA. Lactic acid bacteria prepared in this study are potentially useful for the removal of Shiga toxin from human intestine.

The presence of atherosclerotic plaque vessels is a critical factor in plaque destabilization. This may be attributable to the leaky phenotype of these microvessels, although direct proof for this notion is lacking. In this study, we investigated molecular and cellular patterns of stable and hemorrhaged human plaque to identify novel drivers of intraplaque vessel dysfunction. From transcriptome data of a human atherosclerotic lesion cohort, we reconstructed a co-expression network, identifying a gene module strongly and selectively correlated with both plaque microvascular density and inflammation. Spectrin Beta Non-Erythrocytic 1 (sptbn1) was identified as one of the central hubs of this module (along with zeb1 and dock1) and was selected for further study based on its predominant endothelial expression. Silencing of sptbn1 enhanced leukocyte transmigration and vascular permeability in vitro, characterized by an increased number of focal adhesions and reduced junctional VE-cadherin. In vivo, sptbn1 knockdown in zebrafish impaired the development of the caudal vein plexus. Mechanistically, increased substrate stiffness was associated with sptbn1 downregulation in endothelial cells in vitro and in human vessels. Plaque SPTBN1 mRNA and protein expression were found to correlate with an enhanced presence of intraplaque hemorrhage and future cardiovascular disease (CVD) events during follow-up. In conclusion, we identify SPTBN1 as a central hub gene in a gene program correlating with plaque vascularisation. SPTBN1 was regulated by substrate stiffness in vitro while silencing blocked vascular development in vivo, and compromised barrier function in vitro. Together, SPTBN1 is identified as a new potential regulator of the leaky phenotype of atherosclerotic plaque microvessels.