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Health effects of trans fatty acids (TFAs) on human organisms can vary according to their type, structure, composition, and origin. Even though the adverse health effects of industrial TFAs (iTFAs) have been widely discussed, the health effects of natural TFAs (nTFAs) are still questionable. Hence, it is important to review the literature and provide an overall picture on the health effects of different TFAs coming from industrial and ruminant sources, underlining those types that have adverse health effects as well as suggesting methods for reducing their harmful effects. Multiple databases (PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Library, etc.) were searched with the key words “trans fatty acid sources”, “ruminant”, “industrial”, “conjugated trans linoleic acid”, “human”, “coronary heart disease”, “cancer”, etc. Reference lists of the studies were scanned discussing the health effects of iTFAs and nTFAs. The review of the literature showed that iTFAs are found to be more harmful than ruminant-produced nTFAs. Although several beneficial effects (such as reduced risk of diabetes) for nTFAs have been observed, they should be used with caution. Since during labeling it is usually not mentioned whether the TFAs contained in food are of industrial or natural origin, the general suggestion is to reduce their consumption.

Adequate dietary iron (Fe) intake is crucial for preventing Fe-deficient anemia, a recognized global public health concern which is important in Armenia. This study aimed to analyze the intake of Fe, both heme (from animal tissues) and non-heme (more prevalent, but less efficiently absorbed), as well as the Fe dietary sources, among adults in a representative national sample in Armenia. The study was conducted on 1400 individuals aged 18–80 and above, who were enrolled from all regions of Armenia. The Fe intake was assessed through a 24 h dietary recall survey, while Fe occurrence was determined through atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The results showed a high proportion of adults with a Fe intake lower than the average requirements set by EFSA (65%, 80% and 85% of males, total females and females at fertile age, respectively). Main Fe sources were bread, fruits and vegetables; heme Fe accounted only for <5% of total Fe intake. Compared to males, females had a lower intake of all forms of Fe (p < 0.05). Significant differences were observed in the intake of different forms of Fe between regions (p < 0.05), while the age-group 36–55 years had higher intakes of total Fe. Our data call for comprehensive nutritional security strategies in order to reduce iron deficiency in Armenia, that represents a public health concern.

This study aimed to estimate dietary exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) and characterize its associated risks through the consumption of dried fruits and chocolates among the adult population of Yerevan, the capital city of Armenia. Asflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs were determined using HPLC in 10 composite samples of widely consumed dried fruits and chocolates, prepared by pooling 100 individual sub-samples into 5 dried fruits and 5 chocolate composites. Individual consumption data were obtained via food frequency questionnaires and were stratified by consumer groups and percentiles. Exposure scenarios (lower-, middle-, upper-bound and detected mean) were applied, and risk was assessed using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach with a BMDL10 of 0.4 μg/kg bw/day. The study findings revealed that dried fruits had higher contamination levels (detected mean content of 10 μg/kg AFB1, 15 μg/kg total AFs) compared to chocolates (detected mean content of 0.5 μg/kg AFB1, and 0.9 μg/kg total AFs), resulting in lower MOE values despite smaller consumption quantities. Detectable AFs in dried fruits from open (street) markets exceeded the EU maximum limits, while Armenia currently lacks national regulatory limits for these products. MOEs were below 10,000 for most consumption groups, indicating a potential public health concern. This research emphasizes the urgent need for continuous monitoring and the establishment of harmonized national regulatory limits for AFs in dried fruits.

This paper presents the first assessment of dietary exposure to aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and associated health risks through milk and dairy product consumption in Armenia. Data on AFM1 in raw milk were obtained from an annual residue monitoring program. Additionally, commonly consumed dairy products (pasteurized milk, cheese, sour cream, curd cheese) were sampled, considering the sources of raw milk used by dairy companies. Per capita consumption of raw milk was sourced from national food balance databases, while individual consumption data for dairy products was collected via a 24 h recall survey with 1400 adult respondents. Detectable levels of AFM1 were observed in 7.14% of raw milk samples (up to 0.334 μg/kg) and, albeit at lower amounts (up to 0.009 µg/kg), in 30% and 40% of sour cream and curd cheese, respectively. The AFM1 levels were lower than the national maximum permitted level (0.5 μg/kg); however, levels in raw milk exceeded the EU ML (0.05 μg/kg). The estimated margin of exposure values for dairy products indicated no significant risk, whereas a reasonable worst-case estimate, using the measurable levels of AFM1 in raw milk consumption indicated a potential public health concern. This study provides a scientific basis for evaluating aflatoxin issues in the Caucasus area.

In Armenia, the presence of nitrofuran residues in food products is unacceptable for both domestic sales and export. However, food may contain nitrofuran metabolites (NMs) due to the illegal use of these drugs in the agrofarming practice. This study aimed to identify NMs as the marker residues for nitrofurans in fish and honey produced in Armenia and assess the potential health risks associated with consuming these foods. The commodities studied were natural honey and three species of farmed fish produced by various regions nationwide. Concentrations of the marker metabolites (3-amino-2-oxazolidinone (AOZ), 3-amino-5-methylmorpholino-2-oxazolidinone (AMOZ), 1-aminohydantoin (AHD), and semicarbazide (SEM)) were determined through an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and verified using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Consumer groups were identified based on their average daily intake of foods. Health risk was assessed by calculating the margin of exposure (MOE). Reference values for health risk assessment were obtained from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Results showed that 33.3% of fish samples and 44.4% of honey samples contained NMs, the mean concentrations ranging from 0.05 μg/kg to 0.52 μg/kg. All MOE values obtained were over 10,000, indicating that the detected concentrations of NMs in fish and honey produced in Armenia pose no health risk to consumers. However, these results highlight the illicit use of highly toxic substances and the need for improved control of farming practices.

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a widely used organophosphate insecticide; however, global concerns exist regarding its potential health risks, particularly developmental neurotoxicity. This study aimed to determine CPF residues in locally sourced tomatoes and cucumbers and assess the potential chronic and acute dietary risks associated with their consumption by the adult population of Armenia. As part of the national residue monitoring program, samples of the two most commonly consumed vegetables (tomato and cucumber) were collected from various regions of Armenia and analyzed using gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Two databases were used for dietary exposure assessment: one containing CPF residue levels and another containing individual food consumption data from a food frequency questionnaire completed by 1329 Armenian residents. Chronic risk was assessed using the Margin of Exposure (MOE), while acute risk was evaluated using the Hazard Quotient (HQ) and the Hazard Index (HI). CPF residues were detected in 15% of tomato and 28.6% of cucumber samples, with a mean content of 0.003 mg/kg. Deterministic and probabilistic assessments indicated no health concern (i.e., MOE > 300 and >1000, HQ and HI < 1) for the general adult population at current exposure levels. However, higher cumulative risk estimates obtained for high-consumption groups emphasize the significance of these studied vegetables as notable contributors to overall CPF intake. The findings indicate the importance of establishing vegetable-specific maximum residue levels, strengthening monitoring, and considering vulnerable population groups in future research. Broader assessments, including other plant-origin products, are recommended to ensure comprehensive risk assessment and support science-based policy decisions for improved food safety and public health protection in Armenia.

Household budget surveys are used regularly to estimate dietary intakes. The study aims to assess the trends in food consumption and nutrient intake, according to 14 dietary indicators from household budget surveys in Armenia. Data on food consumption was obtained from Armenian Integrated Living Conditions Surveys, 2008–2019. The results indicate that the consumption of all types of foods, including plant-origin has decreased, whereas the consumption of foods of animal origin has mostly stayed stable. Over time, the energy and macronutrient intakes of Armenians have decreased, while the contribution of each food group to total energy and nutrient intake has not changed. More than 50% of total energy, protein, and carbohydrate intake is attributable to cereals and bakery products. The population is characterized by macronutrient variations; the amounts of energy and carbohydrate intake are below the recommended values set by WHO/FAO, total fat intake is at the highest recommended level, while the amount of protein exceeds the threshold. Based on the findings there is an urgent need to increase awareness of nutritional requirements and a need to change widespread dietary practices, such as irregular meal intake and omission of breakfast.

There are stringent regulations applicable for trans-fatty acid (TFA) limitations from food supply across the world. However, in Armenia, there is a scarcity of data on TFA content in food products and their consumption levels. Considering that fast-food is among the major contributors to TFA intake, this study aims to assess the dietary exposure of TFAs through the consumption of fast-food in Yerevan, Armenia. Eleven types of fast-food were included in the study. The Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was used to evaluate daily fast-food consumption. TFA contents in samples were determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Mean daily fast-food consumption values ranged from 14.68 g/day to 76.09 g/day, with popcorn as the lowest and pastry as the highest consumed food. The study results indicate that the aggregate average daily intake (DI) of TFA is 0.303 g/day. Even though TFA DI values do not exceed the WHO limit of 1%, they substantially contribute to daily TFA intake and may exceed the limit when combined with other foods. Hence, it is recommended to carry out continuous monitoring of TFA content in the food supply to ensure consumer health protection.

Nickel (Ni) is a widespread metal that occurs in food and drinking water from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Oral exposure to Ni can induce a variety of adverse effects; the European Food Safety Authority established a tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 13 μg/kg bw and a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) of 4.3 μg/kg bw to assess the risk of allergic reactions upon acute exposure. This study, the first conducted in Armenia, aimed to assess the dietary exposure of the adult Yerevan population (1272 subjects of both sexes) to Ni in a total diet study (TDS). Detection of Ni was carried out using atomic absorption spectrometry. To determine food consumption values, a 24-h recall survey was used. Following the K-means clustering test, two clusters were determined for food product intake. For the risk characterization of acute oral exposure, the margin of exposure (MOE) was calculated using both deterministic and probabilistic (Monte Carlo method) approaches. The average total exposure was 4.396 μg/kg bw, with limited influence by age and gender. The main contributors were “fruits and vegetables” followed by “bread and flour-based products”: the total intake would be 5.11 μg/kg bw for a woman with high consumption of fruits and vegetables. Hence, the estimated chronic dietary exposure was below the TDI, irrespective of age and gender groups, and including high consumers. However, acute oral exposure estimates led to MOE values of less than 30 for most food products, indicating potential health concerns for Ni-sensitized individuals. The Monte Carlo approach indicated that the probability of occurrence of MOE lower than 30 was very high in the case of beef/veal, pork and chicken meat, eggs, and fish, alongside vegetable sources such as buckwheat, tomato, watermelon/melon, and potatoes. The findings prompt an investigation of Ni sources in the target foods in the Caucasus area.

Soils and contaminated plants are in the group of significant environmental pathways of human exposure to toxic elements (TEs). This study aimed to assess the soil-to-plant transfer of TEs (Pb, As, Cd, Hg), as well as the plausible health risks via different exposure pathways in the Armavir region of Armenia. The contents of TEs were determined in soil, fruit and vegetable samples using X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption spectroscopy, respectively, and the soil-to-plant transfer of TEs and induced chronic non-carcinogenic risks were evaluated. The detected TE contents did not exceed the available national and international regulatory levels. Moreover, the evaluated soil-to-plant transfer of these TEs was negligible. The obtained results indicated the absence of a single-element non-carcinogenic risk via one single ingestion pathway. Meanwhile, in the case of multi-food and multi-soil ingestion, the combined non-carcinogenic risk estimates for Pb and As exceeded the precautionary level of 0.1 indicating a low health risk. Similarly, the multi-element hazard index (HI) showed a low level of non-carcinogenic risk through a multi-pathway ingestion. Thus, the outcomes highlighted that there was a need for precautionary measures to prevent plausible health issues for the adult population in Armavir.