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"Potter, J"
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The number of neurons in Drosophila and mosquito brains
Various insect species serve as valuable model systems for investigating the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which a brain controls sophisticated behaviors. In particular, the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster has been extensively studied, yet experiments aimed at determining the number of neurons in the Drosophila brain are surprisingly lacking. Using isotropic fractionator coupled with immunohistochemistry, we counted the total number of neuronal and non-neuronal cells in the whole brain, central brain, and optic lobe of Drosophila melanogaster . For comparison, we also counted neuronal populations in three divergent mosquito species: Aedes aegypti , Anopheles coluzzii and Culex quinquefasciatus . The average number of neurons in a whole adult brain was determined to be 199,380 ±3,400 cells in D . melanogaster , 217,910 ±6,180 cells in Ae . aegypti , 223,020 ± 4,650 cells in An . coluzzii and 225,911±7,220 cells in C . quinquefasciatus . The mean neuronal cell count in the central brain vs. optic lobes for D . melanogaster (101,140 ±3,650 vs. 107,270 ± 2,720), Ae . aegypti (109,140 ± 3,550 vs. 112,000 ± 4,280), An . coluzzii (105,130 ± 3,670 vs. 107,140 ± 3,090), and C . quinquefasciatus (108,530 ±7,990 vs. 110,670 ± 3,950) was also estimated. Each insect brain was comprised of 89% ± 2% neurons out of its total cell population. Isotropic fractionation analyses did not identify obvious sexual dimorphism in the neuronal and non-neuronal cell population of these insects. Our study provides experimental evidence for the total number of neurons in Drosophila and mosquito brains.
Journal Article
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix
Harry Potter is about to start his fifth year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Unlike most school boys, Harry never enjoys his summer holidays, but this summer is even worse than usual. He is beginning to think he must do something, anything, to change his situation, when the summer holidays come to an end in a very dramatic fashion. What Harry is about to discover in his new year at Hogwarts will turn his world upside down.
Inflammation and macrophage modulation in adipose tissues
Summary The adipose tissue is an active endocrine organ that harbours not only mature and developing adipocytes but also a wide array of immune cells, including macrophages, a key immune cell in determining metabolic functionality. With adipose tissue expansion, M1 pro‐inflammatory macrophage infiltration increases, activates other immune cells, and affects lipid trafficking and metabolism, in part via inhibiting mitochondrial function and increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS). The pro‐inflammatory cytokines produced and released interfere with insulin signalling, while inhibiting M1 macrophage activation improves systemic insulin sensitivity. In healthy adipose tissue, M2 alternative macrophages predominate and associate with enhanced lipid handling and mitochondrial function, anti‐inflammatory cytokine production, and inhibition of ROS. The sequence of events leading to macrophage infiltration and activation in adipose tissue remains incompletely understood but lipid handling of both macrophages and adipocytes appears to play a major role.
Journal Article
Harry Potter and the goblet of fire
When the Quidditch World Cup is disrupted by Voldemort's rampaging supporters and the terrifying Dark Mark appears against the night sky, it is obvious to Harry Potter that, far from weakening, Voldemort is getting stronger. Back at Hogwarts for the fourth year Harry is astonished to be chosen to represent the school in the Triwizard Tournament. The competition is dangerous, the tasks terrifying, and true courage is no guarantee of survival - especially with the Dark Lord's forces on the rise.
Insect repellents mediate species-specific olfactory behaviours in mosquitoes
Background
The species-specific mode of action for DEET and many other mosquito repellents is often unclear. Confusion may arise for many reasons. First, the response of a single mosquito species is often used to represent all mosquito species. Second, behavioural studies usually test the effect of repellents on mosquito attraction towards human odorants, rather than their direct repulsive effect on mosquitoes. Third, the mosquito sensory neuron responses towards repellents are often not directly examined.
Methods
A close proximity response assay was used to test the direct repulsive effect of six mosquito repellents on
Anopheles coluzzii
,
Aedes aegypti
and
Culex quinquefasciatus
mosquitoes. Additionally, the behavioural assay and calcium imaging recordings of antennae were used to test the response of
An. coluzzii
mosquitoes towards two human odorants (1-octen-3-ol and benzaldehyde) at different concentrations, and mixtures of the repellents lemongrass oil and
p
-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) with DEET.
Results
Anopheles coluzzii
mosquitoes were repelled by lemongrass oil and PMD, while
Ae. aegypti
and
Cx. quinquefasciatus
mosquitoes were repelled by lemongrass oil, PMD, eugenol, and DEET. In addition, high concentrations of 1-octen-3-ol and benzaldehyde were repellent, and activated more olfactory receptor neurons on the
An. coluzzii
antennae than lower concentrations. Finally, changes in olfactory responses to repellent mixtures reflected changes in repulsive behaviours.
Conclusions
The findings described here suggest that different species of mosquitoes have different behavioural responses to repellents. The data further suggest that high-odour concentrations may recruit repellent-sensing neurons, or generally excite many olfactory neurons, yielding repellent behavioural responses. Finally, DEET can decrease the neuronal and behavioural response of
An. coluzzii
mosquitoes towards PMD but not towards lemongrass oil. Overall, these studies can help inform mosquito repellent choice by species, guide decisions on effective repellent blends, and could ultimately identify the olfactory neurons and receptors in mosquitoes that mediate repellency.
Journal Article
Restrictive or Liberal Transfusion Strategy in Myocardial Infarction and Anemia
In patients with myocardial infarction and anemia, a liberal transfusion strategy led to fewer deaths and heart attacks than a restricted transfusion strategy, but the difference was of borderline significance.
Journal Article
How does bias correction of regional climate model precipitation affect modelled runoff?
Many studies bias correct daily precipitation from climate models to match the observed precipitation statistics, and the bias corrected data are then used for various modelling applications. This paper presents a review of recent methods used to bias correct precipitation from regional climate models (RCMs). The paper then assesses four bias correction methods applied to the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model simulated precipitation, and the follow-on impact on modelled runoff for eight catchments in southeast Australia. Overall, the best results are produced by either quantile mapping or a newly proposed two-state gamma distribution mapping method. However, the differences between the methods are small in the modelling experiments here (and as reported in the literature), mainly due to the substantial corrections required and inconsistent errors over time (non-stationarity). The errors in bias corrected precipitation are typically amplified in modelled runoff. The tested methods cannot overcome limitations of the RCM in simulating precipitation sequence, which affects runoff generation. Results further show that whereas bias correction does not seem to alter change signals in precipitation means, it can introduce additional uncertainty to change signals in high precipitation amounts and, consequently, in runoff. Future climate change impact studies need to take this into account when deciding whether to use raw or bias corrected RCM results. Nevertheless, RCMs will continue to improve and will become increasingly useful for hydrological applications as the bias in RCM simulations reduces.
Journal Article