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There are not many sites in densely populated temperate Europe where primary forest succession has a chance to run without direct human intervention for a long time and over a relatively large area. The extensive drift sand area of the Veluwe, central Netherlands, provided an opportunity to study succession in a formerly open and dynamic inland sand dune system combining chronosequence and permanent plot approaches. Different successional stages, aged up to 205 years since the first tree individuals established, were identified and vegetation studied using 1200 permanent plots established in 1988 in three adjacent sand dune complexes of different successional age, and resampled during the past three decades. After two centuries, forest succession has proceeded to a pine forest with gradually increasing participation of native deciduous trees. However, their expansion has been arrested by browsing of wild ungulates. Species diversity peaked after about 40 years of forest succession, then declined, and increased again after 100 years. During the past three decades, the herb layer has differentiated in the oldest plots, and the spontaneous forest succession is still in progress. Besides open drift sand with early successional stages, also the spontaneously established late successional forests are valuable from the conservation point of view.

The question of the efficient plot size for sampling vegetation has been discussed many times, but aquatic vegetation is rarely considered. Here we examine a dataset of aquatic (267) and littoral (456) vegetation samples from 60 sandpits across the Czech Republic to determine appropriate plot size while trying to maximise both efficiency and accuracy of the sampling effort. A dataset of littoral vegetation samples was used for comparison in some analyses. The cover of vascular plant species was estimated in nested plots of 1, 4 and 16 m2. Age of sampled plots ranged from 1 to 63 years. Besides species identity itself, basic life-history species traits were considered in the comparison of different plot sizes. Effect of plot size on different ordination patterns was evaluated with Procrustean analyses and the Monte Carlo permutation test. The size categories differed in number of species and species dominance (Simpson index). No significant differences were found between plot sizes in ordinations of aquatic vegetation, neither for species composition nor for the composition of species traits. Our study indicates that aquatic vegetation samples of different size between 1 and 16 m2 are comparable, especially if species functional groups are used instead of species identity. Analyses of successional changes and the influence of environmental variables should not be significantly affected by the plot size used for sampling the vegetation when cover data are used. The different plot sizes did not affect the description of successional trends.

A systematic analysis of vegetation successions following disturbance can outline general invasion patterns and contribute to the management of disturbed and natural ecosystems. Here the participation of alien plant species, with special regard to neophytes, was compared in 20 types of successional series in the Czech Republic, central Europe, to detect possible trends and factors supporting their occurrence. Based on 3473 samples of spontaneously established vegetation, we used linear mixed models and multivariate analyses to assess how alien species were influenced by successional age, average annual temperature and precipitation, altitude, geological substrate, and surrounding land-cover. Out of 1035 plant taxa recorded, 839 were natives, 129 archaeophytes and 67 neophytes. The primary or secondary status of series may influence the participation of neophytes but was not determinative. The most invaded successional series were those in deforested landscapes at lower altitudes. Altitude plus climate, substrate and degree of urbanisation shaped the general vegetation pattern and occurrence of aliens. Neophytes were additionally benefited by density of roads and railways and extent of arable land in the surrounding landscape, confirming that these land uses are relevant invasion pathways and should be targeted in prevention strategies. Alien participation is low and mostly declines in later stages, with few neophytes becoming locally dominant over time. This supports spontaneous succession as a suitable restoration option and places the focus on an early detection of potentially problematic species. These findings may contribute to guiding decisions in landscape restoration and the management of disturbed sites under central European conditions.

Central European raised bogs are unique and fragile ecosystems inhabited by specialists of higher plants, fungi, and insects. Many of these ecosystems have suffered and are still suffering due to peat harvesting and drainage. The respective specialists, so-called tyrphobionts, and their abundance can serve as good indicators of restoration processes after the disturbance. Various taxonomic groups may differ in the response to the processes. This study shows successional trends in two disturbed raised bogs compared to adjoining undisturbed reference raised bogs. During the growing season of 2019 we compared species richness of successional stages with reference sites for the following five groups of organisms: vascular plants, mosses, fungi, butterflies, and moths. After three decades of spontaneous succession, the species composition did not reach the reference site for any taxonomic group. Instead an alternative, near-natural woodland developed. The different groups of organisms exhibited very similar trends in species richness and participation of tyrphobionts. About half of these specialists occurring at the reference sites were able to colonise the disturbed sites, but mostly in low quantity. Water table and pH appeared significant environmental variables. It seems that habitat limitations play a more important role than dispersal limitations in this restoration process. More successful restoration might be possible by substantially increasing the water table in the disturbed raised bogs.

Questions (a) What are directions of spontaneous succession; in particular, do target stages (identified as shrubby grassland and semi‐natural deciduous woodland) develop, and if so, which species are involved? (b) Are the target stages predictable? (c) How do species richness and environmental characteristics change during succession? (d) What are the consequences for restoration and landscape management? Location The Bohemian Karst Protected Landscape Area, SW of Prague, Czech Republic (49° 52′–50° 00′ N, 14° 03′–14° 21′ E, 251–488 m a.s.l.). Methods In a repeated analysis, phytosociological relevés recorded in 4 m × 4 m plots in 58 old‐fields initially surveyed in 1975 were compared to those from 28 still existing fields in 2008–2009. Average Ellenberg indicator values were calculated for each relevé. Aspect and slope were measured and potential radiation calculated. pH was measured from soil samples. Species were grouped according to their affiliation to the phytosociological classes Querco‐Fagetea, Festuco‐Brometea, Trifolio‐Geranietea, Molinio‐Arrhenatheretea, and weedy and ruderal vegetation. Those belonging to the first three classes were considered target species. The data were analysed using multivariate (ordination methods) and univariate statistics. Results The spontaneous succession in old‐fields proceeded towards target stages, either deciduous woodlands or shrubby grasslands. Their establishment can be tentatively predicted by soil pH and early occurrence of grassland species. Except pH, all Ellenberg indicator values changed during succession. pH values (Ellenberg and measured) were higher in shrubby grasslands than in woodlands. The total number of species decreased during succession, the number of target woodland species increased, and target grassland species remained the same in the shrubby grassland stages but decreased in the woodland stages during the past 33 yr of succession. Conclusions Target shrubby grasslands, resembling natural steppe‐like communities typical of the region and valuable from a conservation point of view, can be restored by spontaneous succession within a few decades in about one‐third of the studied old‐fields. Other fields developed into deciduous woodland. Restoration of well‐developed target woodland will take longer, but the trend is already obvious, although less desirable nitrophilous woodland might also alternatively develop. Repeating earlier chronosequence studies may provide valuable information useful in restoration ecology and landscape management. Repeating earlier chronosequence studies may provide valuable information useful in restoration and conservation ecology. In our case, valuable target shrubby grasslands can be restored by spontaneous succession within a few decades in about one third of the studied old fields. Restoration of well‐developed target woodlands will take a longer time, although also less desired nitrophilous woodlands might alternatively develop.

1. Successional theory lacks an explicit, conceptual integration across types of disturbances and biomes. Most successional research addresses site- or process-specific questions, but extrapolation of the findings to broad scales is limited. 2. Studies of plant succession are often distinguished by the severity of the disturbance that triggers them (severely disturbed: primary; less severely disturbed: secondary). Here, we examine the common assumption that primary and secondary succession differ. We use two anthropogenic disturbances for this comparison, mining and ploughing. 3. Successional generalizations are confounded by a complexity of environmental factors including climatic and geographic variation. We address these issues by contrasting succession across multiple biomes. 4. We selected 166 studies of succession on mining sites (n = 73) or abandoned fields (n = 93) that allowed us to compare successional trajectories in terms of the likelihood of a return to target vegetation, changes in species richness, type of trajectories, and the importance of alien species. 5. Success of both types of succession (a return to target vegetation) differed significantly among biomes, with more likely success in cold than warm biomes (for both primary and secondary seres) and in humid than arid biomes (primary seres only). Primary seres were also more likely than secondary seres to have increases in species richness, a predominance of divergent trajectories, and a lower likelihood that alien species influenced succession. 6. Synthesis. The probability of reaching target vegetation by spontaneous succession is generally greater in biomes at higher versus lower latitudes. Primary and secondary seres differed regarding species richness, trajectories, and the role of alien species. Our results highlight that broad generalizations about succession are possible, despite a paucity of comparable data and our use of only two types of anthropogenic disturbances. Any generalizations that might be found among seres across disturbances and biomes will provide a practical framework for land managers to guide restoration efforts, particularly in poorly studied areas.

We compared the rate of invasion of four plant species which are alien to central Europe and the highest-growing representative of different life-forms: Impatients glandulifera (annaul), Heracleum mantegazzianum (monocarpic perennial), Reynoutria japonica and R. sachalinensis (polycarpic perennials). The spread of these species in the Czech Republic was reconstructed on the basis of floristic data. Cumulative numbers of localities reported from the time of introduction to the present were used for comparison. Exponential regression models were found to best fit the increase in thecumulative number of localities over time and the slope b was considered a convenient measure of the invasion rate. The ranking of species according to the decreasing rate of invasion was: I. glandulifera, Reynoutria japonica, Heracleum mantegazzianum, R. sachalinensis. The rate of invasion in riparian habitats, if these were treated separately, decreased in the following order: I. glandulifer, R. sachalinensis, R. japonica, H. mantegazzianum. The lag and exponential phases of spread were distinguished and the timing of the beginning of invasion was estimated at 1936 in I. glandulifera, 1938 in R. japonica, 1943 in H. mantegazzianum and 1952 in R. sachalinensis. H. mantegazzianum and I. glandulifera began to spread exponentially after having reached only a few localities in the area studied and their invasion rates during the exponential phase were higher than those of both Reynoutria species, whose imvasion proceeded at a more even rate. Habitat preferences differed between species in both law and exponential phases of spread. Different patterns of affinity to riparian habitats were found among the species studied. The role of river corridors in encouraging plant invasions is discussed on the regional scale with respect to the autecology of the species and frequency of suitable habitats.

Vegetation samples from 15 successional seres in various disturbed habitats in the western part of the Czech Republic were analysed to detect possible trends. For particular seres, data on species cover were available from the onset to 10–76 yr of succession. All seres started on bare ground. Species which attained at least 1% cover in any sere in any year were used as input data for Canonical Correspondence Analysis, assessing the effect of time as the environmental variable, for Detrended Correspondence Analysis and TWINSPAN classification. Two distinct groups ofseres were distinguished: ‘ruderal’, occurring in agricultural, industrial or urban landscapes altered by men, usually on fertile sites; and ‘non‐ruderul’, occurring in less altered, mostly forested landscapes, usually on acid, nutrient‐poor and wetter soils. The former type of succession starts with ruderal annuals, being followed by ruderal perennials. In the latter case non‐ruderal clonal perennials prevail from the onset of succession. The landscape frame is emphasized, beside site environmental conditions, as influencing the type of succession. The character of species attaining dominance in succession, participation of dominant woody plants and the character of late successional stages, i.e. features important from the point of view of potential restoration of human‐disturbed habitats, are discussed.

Repeated vegetation maps and phytosociological relevés recorded in the 1950s and again from 1984 to 2006 in a wet meadow complex near the town of Třeboň, in the southern part of the Czech Republic, central Europe were compared. The following trends were evident: original vegetation zones disappeared, as well as vegetation typical of less intensively used sites, i.e., short-sedge marshes and Deschampsia cespitosa meadows. Instead, stands with Phalaris arundinacea, Urtica dioica, Elytrigia repens, and species-poor Alopecurus pratensis meadows, as well as woody species, expanded as a result of either too intensive use (cutting, manuring) or abandonment. The number of 46 meadow and marsh species recorded in 1956 in repeated relevés was reduced to one-third, while ruderal and weedy species increased from zero to 22, thus surpassing the meadow and marsh species being now more numerous than the former ones. The large degradation that started in the late 1970s continues, with there being no chance of recovery unless the present management regime stops manuring and implements appropriate regular cutting once or twice a year.