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\"Written opinions are the primary means by which judges communicate with external actors. These opinions include the parties to the case itself, but also more broadly journalists, public officials, lawyers, other judges, and increasingly, the mass public. In Creating the Law, Michael K. Romano and Todd A. Curry examine the extent to which judges tailor their language in order to avoid retribution during their retention, and how institutional variations involving intra-chamber dynamics may influence the written word of a legal opinion. Using an extensive dataset that includes the text of all death penalty and education decisions issued by state supreme courts from 1995-2010, Romano and Curry are the first to examine the connection between retention incentives and language choices. They utilize text analysis techniques developed in the field of communications and apply them to the text of judicial decisions. In doing so, they find that judges write with their audience in mind, and emphasize dueling strategies of justification and persuasion in order to please diverse audiences that may be paying attention. Furthermore, the process of drafting a majority opinion is a team exercise, and when more individuals are involved in its crafting, the product will reflect this complexity. This book gives students the tools for understanding how institutional variation affects judicial outcomes and shows how language relates to decision making in the judiciary more specifically\"-- Provided by publisher.

Choline is a water-soluble nutrient essential for human life. Gut microbial metabolism of choline results in the production of trimethylamine (TMA), which upon absorption by the host is converted in the liver to trimethylamine- N -oxide (TMAO). Recent studies revealed that TMAO exacerbates atherosclerosis in mice and positively correlates with the severity of this disease in humans. However, which microbes contribute to TMA production in the human gut, the extent to which host factors (e.g., genotype) and diet affect TMA production and colonization of these microbes, and the effects TMA-producing microbes have on the bioavailability of dietary choline remain largely unknown. We screened a collection of 79 sequenced human intestinal isolates encompassing the major phyla found in the human gut and identified nine strains capable of producing TMA from choline in vitro . Gnotobiotic mouse studies showed that TMAO accumulates in the serum of animals colonized with TMA-producing species, but not in the serum of animals colonized with intestinal isolates that do not generate TMA from choline in vitro . Remarkably, low levels of colonization by TMA-producing bacteria significantly reduced choline levels available to the host. This effect was more pronounced as the abundance of TMA-producing bacteria increased. Our findings provide a framework for designing strategies aimed at changing the representation or activity of TMA-producing bacteria in the human gut and suggest that the TMA-producing status of the gut microbiota should be considered when making recommendations about choline intake requirements for humans. IMPORTANCE Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and increased trimethylamine N -oxide (TMAO) levels have been causally linked with CVD development. This work identifies members of the human gut microbiota responsible for both the accumulation of trimethylamine (TMA), the precursor of the proatherogenic compound TMAO, and subsequent decreased choline bioavailability to the host. Understanding how to manipulate the representation and function of choline-consuming, TMA-producing species in the intestinal microbiota could potentially lead to novel means for preventing or treating atherosclerosis and choline deficiency-associated diseases. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and increased trimethylamine N -oxide (TMAO) levels have been causally linked with CVD development. This work identifies members of the human gut microbiota responsible for both the accumulation of trimethylamine (TMA), the precursor of the proatherogenic compound TMAO, and subsequent decreased choline bioavailability to the host. Understanding how to manipulate the representation and function of choline-consuming, TMA-producing species in the intestinal microbiota could potentially lead to novel means for preventing or treating atherosclerosis and choline deficiency-associated diseases.

Adsorption is one of the simplest and most cost-effective techniques for water decontamination. In this field, biochar has recently emerged as a promising alternative to traditional adsorbents, exhibiting a high surface area and affinity to metal ions, as well as often being waste-derived. Similarly, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) shows an excellent adsorption capacity. Having self-assembling properties, it has already been employed to obtain self-standing heavy-metal-adsorbing membranes. In this research, a novel self-standing membrane of biochar and rGO is presented. It was obtained through an eco-friendly method, consisting of the simple mechanical mixing of the two components, followed by vacuum filtration and mild drying. Vine pruning biochar (VBC) was employed in different rGO/biochar mass ratios, ranging from 1/1 to 1/9. The best compromise between membrane integrity and biochar content was achieved with a 4/6 proportion. This sample was also replicated using chestnut-shell-derived biochar. The composite rGO–biochar membranes were characterized through XRD, FTIR-ATR, TG-DTG, SEM-EDX, BET, ZP, particle dimension, and EPR analyses. Then, they were tested for metal ion adsorption with 10 mM Cu2+ and 100 mM Zn2+ aqueous solutions. The adsorption capacity of copper and zinc was found to be in the range of 1.51–4.03 mmolCu g−1 and 18.16–21.99 mmolZn g−1, respectively, at an acidic pH, room temperature, and contact time of 10 min. Interestingly, the composite rGO–biochar membranes exhibited a capture behavior between that of pure rGO and VBC.

Olfaction is influenced by contextual factors, past experiences, and the animal’s internal state. Whether this information is integrated at the initial stages of cortical odour processing is not known, nor how these signals may influence odour encoding. Here we revealed multiple and diverse non-olfactory responses in the primary olfactory (piriform) cortex (PCx), which dynamically enhance PCx odour discrimination according to behavioural demands. We performed recordings of PCx neurons from mice trained in a virtual reality task to associate odours with visual contexts to obtain a reward. We found that learning shifts PCx activity from encoding solely odours to a regime in which positional, contextual, and associative responses emerge on odour-responsive neurons that become mixed-selective. The modulation of PCx activity by these non-olfactory signals was dynamic, improving odour decoding during task engagement and in rewarded contexts. This improvement relied on the acquired mixed-selectivity, demonstrating how integrating extra-sensory inputs in sensory cortices can enhance sensory processing while encoding the behavioural relevance of stimuli. Sensory processing can be influenced by non-sensory signals. Here, the authors demonstrate that, in the primary olfactory cortex, odour-responsive neurons acquire multiple non-sensory signals through learning, improving odor decoding and discrimination.

Humans with metabolic and inflammatory diseases frequently harbour lower levels of butyrate-producing bacteria in their gut. However, it is not known whether variation in the levels of these organisms is causally linked with disease development and whether diet modifies the impact of these bacteria on health. Here we show that a prominent gut-associated butyrate-producing bacterial genus ( Roseburia ) is inversely correlated with atherosclerotic lesion development in a genetically diverse mouse population. We use germ-free apolipoprotein E-deficient mice colonized with synthetic microbial communities that differ in their capacity to generate butyrate to demonstrate that Roseburia intestinalis interacts with dietary plant polysaccharides to: impact gene expression in the intestine, directing metabolism away from glycolysis and toward fatty acid utilization; lower systemic inflammation; and ameliorate atherosclerosis. Furthermore, intestinal administration of butyrate reduces endotoxaemia and atherosclerosis development. Together, our results illustrate how modifiable diet-by-microbiota interactions impact cardiovascular disease, and suggest that interventions aimed at increasing the representation of butyrate-producing bacteria may provide protection against atherosclerosis. Roseburia intestinalis is a butyrate-producing member of the gut microbiome that can use dietary plant polysaccharides to alter host metabolism, transcription and epigenetics, and lower inflammation and endotoxaemia, resulting in reduced atherosclerosis.

The development of new imaging and optogenetics techniques to study the dynamics of large neuronal circuits is generating datasets of unprecedented volume and complexity, demanding the development of appropriate analysis tools. We present a comprehensive computational workflow for the analysis of neuronal population calcium dynamics. The toolbox includes newly developed algorithms and interactive tools for image pre-processing and segmentation, estimation of significant single-neuron single-trial signals, mapping event-related neuronal responses, detection of activity-correlated neuronal clusters, exploration of population dynamics, and analysis of clusters' features against surrogate control datasets. The modules are integrated in a modular and versatile processing pipeline, adaptable to different needs. The clustering module is capable of detecting flexible, dynamically activated neuronal assemblies, consistent with the distributed population coding of the brain. We demonstrate the suitability of the toolbox for a variety of calcium imaging datasets. The toolbox open-source code, a step-by-step tutorial and a case study dataset are available at https://github.com/zebrain-lab/Toolbox-Romano-et-al.

Chitosan is a very versatile biomaterial with countless applications in different fields. Due to its biodegradability, non-toxicity, and biocompatibility, the use of chitosan is associated with sustainable practices. When applied to plants, in an agricultural context, chitosan induces defense mechanisms, stress resistance, and increased productivity and it has proven to be a feasible alternative to harmful agrochemicals. For in vitro plant culture, chitosan has been also applied to crops and other economically important species, with promising results. In this review, we discuss the recent applications of chitosan on plant tissue culture. Chitosan has been mainly used for the improvement of several growth parameters, but it has been also applied to enhance in vitro seed germination and accumulation of secondary metabolites. The plant material used, the concentrations and forms of chitosan employed, and the influence of chitosan on other plant parameters during in vitro culture are revised. We anticipate that chitosan applications will increase in a near future because of its potential and the increasing demand for more eco-friendly procedures.Key messageThe review presents an overview of the recent applications of chitosan in plant tissue culture, including growth improvement, seed germination, and elicitation of secondary metabolites. Moreover, the potential mechanisms of action of chitosan are discussed.

Background Trimethylamine N -oxide (TMAO), a small molecule produced by the metaorganismal metabolism of dietary choline, has been implicated in human disease pathogenesis, including known risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), such as metabolic, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular disease. Methods In this study, we tested whether TMAO is linked to AD by examining TMAO levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collected from a large sample ( n  = 410) of individuals with Alzheimer’s clinical syndrome ( n  = 40), individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) ( n  = 35), and cognitively-unimpaired individuals ( n  = 335). Linear regression analyses were used to determine differences in CSF TMAO between groups (controlling for age, sex, and APOE ε4 genotype), as well as to determine relationships between CSF TMAO and CSF biomarkers of AD (phosphorylated tau and beta-amyloid) and neuronal degeneration (total tau, neurogranin, and neurofilament light chain protein). Results CSF TMAO is higher in individuals with MCI and AD dementia compared to cognitively-unimpaired individuals, and elevated CSF TMAO is associated with biomarkers of AD pathology (phosphorylated tau and phosphorylated tau/Aβ 42 ) and neuronal degeneration (total tau and neurofilament light chain protein). Conclusions These findings provide additional insight into gut microbial involvement in AD and add to the growing understanding of the gut–brain axis.

Isocyanides have long been known as versatile chemical reagents in organic synthesis. Their ambivalent nature also allows them to function as a CO-substitute in palladium-catalyzed cross couplings. Over the past decades, isocyanides have emerged as practical and versatile C1 building blocks, whose inherent N-substitution allows for the rapid incorporation of nitrogeneous fragments in a wide variety of products. Recent developments in palladium catalyzed isocyanide insertion reactions have significantly expanded the scope and applicability of these imidoylative cross-couplings. This review highlights the advances made in this field over the past eight years.