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Vegetable gardens are increasingly common in urban areas and can provide numerous societal benefits; however, contamination with potential toxic elements (PTEs) due to urbanization and industrialization is cause for concern. The present study aimed to assess the source of contamination and pollution levels in urban garden soils, as well as the health risks for adults and children consuming vegetables grown in such environments. Various types of vegetable samples and their corresponding soils from 26 community gardens were collected throughout Chengdu City in southwestern China. The results showed that leafy vegetables, particularly lettuce leaves and Chinese cabbage, had relatively higher levels of Cd (0.04 mg/kg FW) and Pb (0.05 mg/kg FW), while higher levels of As (0.07 mg/kg FW), Cr (0.07 mg/kg FW), and Hg (0.003 mg/kg FW) were found in amaranths, tomatoes, and Houttuynia cordatas, respectively. The pollution indices revealed that the vegetable purplish soils were relatively more polluted by Cd and As, and the concentrations of these metals in vegetables were correlated with their concentrations in the soils. Principal component analysis grouped the PTEs in two dimensions that cumulatively explained 62.3% of their variation, and hierarchical clustering identified two distinct clusters indicating that Cr originated from a unique source. The health risk assessment revealed that exposure to As and Cd induced the greatest non-carcinogenic risk, whereas Cr was most likely to cause cancer risks. Furthermore, contaminated vegetable consumption was riskier for children than adults. The critical factors contributing to PTE contamination in vegetable gardens were determined to be vegetable species, total soil element content, soil pH, and soil organic matter content. Overall, Cr and As pollution present the greatest concern, and community health care services must enact more effective regulatory and preventative measures for urban gardens in terms of PTEs.

Anthropogenic activities in and around the urban highways followed by aerodynamic processing generate street dusts, which can cause adverse health effects through different exposure pathways. Hence, considering the high degree of industrialization, concomitant unplanned urbanization, and rapid demographic augmentation, street dust samples from an urban city (Gazipur, Bangladesh) were investigated in terms of potentially toxic elements (using ICP-MS) to evaluate their ecological and health risks. Mean concentrations (± SD) of lead (Pb), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), and arsenic (As) in the analyzed air-dried samples were 40.9 ± 13.6, 44.9 ± 15.4, 83.3 ± 19.0, 9.1 ± 5.4, 239.1 ± 34.7, 33.5 ± 10.4, and 2.1 ± 0.8 mg/kg, respectively with heterogeneous distribution which were 0.2 (As) to 82.7 (Cd) times higher than the available internationally recommended limits. Element-specific environmental indices revealed that contamination levels followed the descending order as Cd > Zn > Cu > Pb > Cr > Ni > As, whereas individual ecological risks followed the descending order as Cd > Cu > Pb > Ni > Zn > Cr > As. Sampling site-specific composite indices indicated that sampling sites with high loadings of traffic, population, industrialization, and urbanization were mostly polluted. Multivariate statistical approaches also deduced the similar origins of the studied elements. In terms of the investigated elements, the study site possessed high potential ecological risks, although non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks through different pathway’s exposures seem insignificant, where children are more vulnerable than adults.

This study was conducted to assess the concentrations of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in soils of tobacco field and plants were collected in the edge of Sichuan Basin, China (Panzihua, Guangyuan, Luzhou and Yibin). Ecological risk of Cd and Pb in soil and human health risk from tobacco leaves were also assessed. The maximum Cd and Pb concentrations in soil were obtained in Yibin (2.94 mg/kg) and Luzhou (54.2 mg/kg), respectively. Ecological risk of Cd and Pb in tobacco soils was assessed based on geoaccumulation index, potential ecological risk (PER) and toxic units. Among four study sites, Cd and Pb concentrations in leaves and stems of Yibin were higher than all samples collected from other three study sites. Health risk was estimated from the concentration of Cd and Pb in tobacco leaves. The carcinogenic risk range for Cd was 7.9E − 04 to 1.4E − 01 and for Pb was 5.7E − 03 to 2.8E − 02, respectively. The increased chronic carcinogenic values for Cd in Luzhou and Yibin crossed the USEPA acceptable limit (> 1.00E − 4) indicating that Cd poses cancer risk after consumption of tobacco leaves.

Road dust, which reflects ambient air quality, receives various pollutants including toxic metal(oid)s from several natural and/or anthropogenic sources. This manuscript reports a comprehensive evaluation of the levels of seventeen metal(oid)s in road dust of a megacity (Dhaka, Bangladesh). Different evaluation approaches were implemented including statistical analysis and GIS mapping, besides environmental, ecological, and human health risk indices. From 30 sampling sites, representative samples were collected, which were analyzed by neutron activation analysis. The average concentrations (± SD) of Na, Mg, Al, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Zn, As, Rb, Sb, Cs, Ba, and W were 11,738 ± 560 µg g −1 , 12,410 ± 1249 µg g −1 , 62,127 ± 5937 µg g −1 , 8.89 ± 0.47 µg g −1 , 5224 ± 1244 µg g −1 , 66 ± 8 µg g −1 , 66.7 ± 6.9 µg g −1 , 547 ± 110 µg g −1 , 25,150 ± 1723 µg g −1 , 8.39 ± 0.65 µg g −1 , 125 ± 17 µg g −1 , 3.63 ± 0.56 µg g −1 , 87 ± 9 µg g −1 , 0.75 ± 0.28 µg g −1 , 4.40 ± 0.48 µg g −1 , 397 ± 87 µg g −1 , and 3.82 ± 1.77 µg g −1 , respectively. The distance-based redundancy analysis showed that the northern region was enriched with Na, Mn, Al, Fe, Zn, and Rb, while the southern region was enriched with Fe, Al, Ti, Cr, and Mg. The GIS mapping shows hot spots of Sc, Cr, Zn, and Cs were observed mostly in heavy traffic areas. Significant positive correlations of Fe-Sc, Al–Mg, V-Mg, V-Al, Cs-Rb, Cs-Sc, Rb-Sc, As-Na, and Cs-Rb invoked their inter-dependency and persistence in road dust. Depending on a set of environmental and ecological index–based calculation, the degree of metal(oid) pollution followed the descending order as W > Sb > Zn > Cr > As > Ti > Sc > V, while no pollution was recorded by Mn, Fe, Al, Rb, Cs, Co, and Ba. Importantly, the total hazard index values for adults and children were higher than unity, indicating potential non-carcinogenic health risks from exposure of road dust. Furthermore, the total carcinogenic risks from Cr and As through ingestion and dermal contact exceeded the standard guideline values. The implementation of different evaluation approaches strengthens the findings of metal(oid) source apportionment.

Heavy metal enrichment in road dust has resulted from intensive anthropogenic activity, particularly urbanization, industrial activities and traffic emission, posing a hazard to urban ecosystems and human health. To promote optimal road dust management in urban environments, it is necessary to assess the possible ecological and health impact of toxic elements in road dust. In a heavily populated megacity like Dhaka, Bangladesh, large-scale risk assessments of contamination in road dust with heavy metals are limited. The present study aims at presenting a concentration of twenty-five metals in road dust (Na, K, Cs, Rb, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Zn, Cd, Pb, As, Sb, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zr and W) in Dhaka megacity. We used a critical source-based positive matrix factorization model, source-oriented potential ecological risks and health risks. Out of the studied metals, Na, Ca, Zn, Cd, Cu, Zr and W exceeded the shale value. About 73%, 48%, 29% and 32% of sampling sites showed a higher level of pollution based on PLI, NIPI, PER and NIRI, respectively. PMF model identified that Cd (85.3%), Cr (62.4%), Ni (58.2%), Zn (81.8%) and Mn (65.9%) in road dust were primarily attributed to traffic emission, fuel combustion, metal processing, transport sources and natural sources, respectively. Fuel combustion and metal processing posed considerable and high risks based on modified potential ecological risk and NIRI. Based on health hazards, traffic emission posed a high cancer risk in adult males (29%), whereas transport sources contributed to females (21%) and children (23%).

Louhajang River, Bangladesh, which crosses Tangail as a densely industrialized and urbanized city, supplies water for different purposes. This study reports the levels of pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and some toxic heavy metals in 40 water samples collected during the summer and winter seasons from Louhajang River. The winter season reported higher levels of the examined parameters than the summer season with significant variation ( p < 0.05) for all parameters, with the exception of Cd. The metal contents were assessed against local and international standards for drinking, irrigation, and aquatic life purposes where different trends were observed. The heavy metal evaluation index and the ecological risk index reported low to moderate risks. The spatial distribution of metal contents assigned hot spots in some sites along the riverbed. The health risk assessment for three population categories, i.e., adult male, adult female, and children, was examined. Cr and Cd recorded hazard index > 1 in all cases, indicating possible non-cancer risk. The total carcinogenic risk values during both seasons were > 1.0 × 10 −6 , indicating possible cancer risk. The adopted collection of different approaches (comparison against standard levels of toxicants, statistical analysis, spatial distribution, and health risk assessment) successfully demonstrates a whole picture of the environmental status of Louhajang River, Bangladesh.

Heavy metals in soil are harmful to natural biodiversity and human health, and it is difficult to estimate the effects accurately. To reduce pollution and manage risk in coal-mining regions, it is essential to evaluate risks for heavy metals in soil. The present study reviews the levels of 21 metals (Nb, Zr, Ag, Ni, Na, K, Mg, Rb, Zn, Ca, Sr, As, Cr, Fe, Pb, Cd, Co, Hg, Cu, Mn and Ti) in soils around Barapukuria coal-mining vicinity, Bangladesh which were reported in literature. An integrated approach for risk assessments with the positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, source-oriented ecological and health hazards were applied for the study. The contents of Rb, Ca, Zn, Pb, As, Ti, Mn, Co, Ag, Zr, and Nb were 1.63, 1.10, 1.97, 14.12, 1.20, 3.13, 1.22, 3.05, 3.85, 5.48, and 7.21 times greater than shale value. About 37%, 67%, 12%, and 85% of sampling sites posed higher risks according to the modified contamination factor, Nemerow pollution index, Nemerow integrated risk index, and mean effect range median quotient, respectively. Five probable metal sources were computed, including industrial activities to coal mining (17%), agricultural activities (33%), atmospheric deposition (19%), traffic emission (16%), and natural sources (15%). Modified Nemerow integrated risk index reported that agricultural activities, industrial coal mining activities, and atmospheric deposition showed moderate risk. Health hazards revealed that cancer risk values computed by the PMF-HHR model with identified sources were higher than the standard value (1.0E−04) for children, adult male, and female. Agricultural activities showed higher cancer risks to adult male (39%) and children (32%) whereas traffic emission contributed to female (25%). These findings highlight the ecological and health issues connected to potential sources of metal contamination and provide useful information to policymakers on how to reduce such risks.

Trace elements contamination in the aquatic ecosystem is a current and major environmental concern due to their non-degradable nature and toxic effects on human health. Concentrations of arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in fish were estimated to evaluate contamination levels and health risks for Bangladeshi adults. A total of six demersal fish species namely Mystus vittatus , Polynemus paradiseus , Sillaginopsis panijus , Lates calcarifer , Cynoglossus arel and Pseudapocryptes elongates were collected in summer and winter season from the coastal Karnaphuli River, Bangladesh. The analyzed trace elements varied between different species of fish. The concentration of studied trace elements exceed Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization maximum tolerable intake indicating risk to human body. The mean concentration of As, Cr, Cd and Pb were found 2.18, 9.1, 7.2 and 4.38 times higher than the recommended value. Health risks associated with these trace element intakes were evaluated in terms of dietary intake and target hazard quotients (THQs). The THQs value for individual fish species was more than one which was responsible for non-carcinogenic health hazard due to fish consumption. Target Carcinogenic Risk (TR) value for arsenic and lead was also higher than USEPA standard (10 −4 ) indicated chronic cancer risk to human. From the health point of view, this study showed that the inhabitants who consume these fishes are exposed chronically to trace elements pollution with carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic consequences.

Intense human activities, particularly industrial and agricultural output, has enriched metal(loid)s in riverine sediment and endangered aquatic ecosystems and human health. Promoting proper river management requires an assessment of the possible ecological hazards and pollution posed by metal(loid)s in sediments. However, there are limited large-scale risk assessments of metal(loid)s contamination in riverine sediment in heavily populated nations like Bangladesh. This study compiled data on sediment metal(loid)s, for example, Cd, As, Cu, Ni, Cr, Pb, Mn, and Zn, from 24 major rivers located across Bangladesh between 2011 and 2022 and applied positive matrix factorization (PMF) to identify the critical metal(loid)s sources and PMF model-based ecological risks. Based on studied metal(loid)s, 12–78% of rivers posed higher contents than the upper continental crust and 8% of the river sediments for Cr and Ni, whereas 4% for Cd and As exceeded probable effect concentration. Cr and Ni in the sum of toxic units (STU), whereas Mn, As and Cd in potential ecological risk (PER) posed the highest contribution to contaminate sediments. In the studied rivers, sediment contaminant Mn derived from natural sources; Zn and Ni originated from mixed sources; Cr and Cu were released from the tannery and industrial emissions and Cd originated from agricultural practices. Source-based PER and NIRI indicated that mixed source (4% rivers) and tannery and industrial emission (4% rivers) posed very high risks in sediments. For the creation of macroscale policies and the restoration of contaminated rivers, our national-scale comprehensive study offers helpful references.

Trace element contamination in Chinese herbal medicines has been recognized as a potential health concern for consumers. To assess the health risk to the herb-consuming population, nine trace elements (Cu, Cd, Cr, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sr, Zn, and As) were investigated based on their concentrations in three common medicinal plants (Astragalus membranaceus, Codonopsis tangshen, and Paris polyphylla var. chinensis) and soils from unpolluted and polluted areas in the Sichuan Province, China. The results showed that the metal content differed significantly in medicinal plants and soils from unpolluted versus polluted areas. No significant differences in metal accumulation were observed for these CHMs grown in either unpolluted or polluted areas. Evaluation of the health risk index suggested that soil ingestion and medicated diet represented the dominant exposure routes, indicating that trace metal(loids) in local soil might pose potential risks through soil-food chain transfer. Hazard quotient values for AM (1.473) and CT (1.357) were higher than the standard value (HQ > 1), whereas the hazard indices for PC, AM, and CT were 13.18, 14.33, and 14.01 times higher than the safe limit (HI > 1) in the polluted area, indicating non-cancer-related health hazards. Ingestion of soil was responsible for 36.39 to 91.06% of the total cancer risk and medicated diet accounted for 6.35 to 62.71%, compared with inhalation and dermal contact, suggesting carcinogenic health risks in herbs from polluted soils. In this study, Pb showed relatively higher non-carcinogenic risks, while Cr and Ni posed the highest cancer risks. Therefore, we propose more effective measures, which should be considered for Cr, Ni, and Pb remediation in soil to reduce their pollution in the studied areas.