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"Reddy, Linda A"
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Student Violence Against Paraprofessionals in Schools: A Social-Ecological Analysis of Safety and Well-Being
Violence against teachers has received increasing attention worldwide, with high rates of verbal, threatening, physical, and property violence in schools. Teacher-directed violence contributes to poor mental and physical health, high rates of turnover, and diminished student achievement. Despite these findings, there is a dearth of research on violence experienced by paraprofessionals who play key roles in supporting students with the greatest learning and behavioral needs in schools. Using a sample of 1993 paraprofessionals, this study is one of the first to investigate paraprofessionals’ experiences of violence in school settings. We found that the rate of student violence against paraprofessionals was 37% for property offenses, 49.5% for physical violence, and 54% for verbal and threatening violence. Further, we employed a socio-ecological model of individual, classroom, school, and community factors to predict paraprofessional experiences of violence from students in schools. Negative binomial regression results revealed that student-staff relationship problems and student behavioral concerns were positively related to verbal and threatening, physical, and property violence against paraprofessionals. Paraprofessionals working in elementary schools were more likely to report physical violence compared to those working in middle or high school settings. Implications for research and educational practice are also presented.
Journal Article
Administrator Turnover: The Roles of District Support, Safety, Anxiety, and Violence from Students
Researchers have examined the importance of school administrative support for teacher safety, victimization, anxiety, and retention; however, studies to date have rarely focused on school administrators’ perceptions of support by their district leaders, and its relation to administrators’ anxiety/stress, safety, and their intentions to transfer or quit their jobs. In the current study of 457 PreK-12th grade school administrators in the United States, structural equation modeling was used to examine relations between administrators’ perceptions of support from their district leaders and their anxiety/stress, safety, and intentions to transfer or quit their jobs. Administrator experiences of violence by student offenders served as a moderator. Results indicated that administrators’ perceptions of district leaders’ support were associated with lower intentions to transfer or quit their positions both directly and indirectly as a function of decreased anxiety/stress. District support was positively related to administrator safety, particularly for administrators who reported experiencing more student violence. Findings highlight the importance of district support of administrators for reducing mental health concerns and transfer/quit intentions in the context of student violence against school administrators. Implications of findings for research and practice are presented.
Journal Article
Violence Against Administrators: The Roles of Student, School, and Community Strengths and Cultural Pluralism
Scientific and public attention regarding educator-directed violence has increased over the past 15 years; however, research on violence against administrators is limited. Although school administrators are responsible for school performance and safety, they can be particularly vulnerable to violence from students, teachers, and parents. This study includes 497 pre-K–12th grade school administrators in the United States. A path analysis was conducted to examine the associations between administrator perceptions of student-, school-, and community-level strengths and administrator experiences of verbal/threatening and physical violence. Cultural pluralism, which incorporates student and staff support of cultural differences and honors different voices and cultures in curricula and discussion, was investigated as a moderator of these associations. Results indicate that (a) student strengths are associated with less student verbal/threatening violence against administrators; (b) school strengths are associated with less student and colleague verbal/threatening violence against administrators; and (c) community strengths are associated with less physical violence from students and less verbal/threatening violence from parents against administrators. Cultural pluralism practices significantly moderated the relationship between student strengths and physical violence from colleagues. Findings highlight school practices and policies across the school ecology that are associated with less administrator-directed violence.
Journal Article
School Safety Concerns and Solutions: A Qualitative Analysis of U.S. School Psychologists’ Perspectives
In the present study, we analyzed qualitative survey data from 538 school psychologists across schools in the United States regarding their perceptions of school safety issues and potential strategies to address school safety. There are only a few studies exploring the experiences and perspectives of school psychologists that have been based on large-scale qualitative data. Using inductive coding, three themes for safety concerns emerged: (a) aggressive behaviors from students, (b) mental and behavioral needs, and (c) limited staffing. Three themes also emerged for potential solutions: (a) professional development/training, (b) school–family–community relationships, and (c) threat assessments. These findings from school psychologists have implications for addressing structural issues to prevent school violence in research and practice. Policy recommendations to inform resource allocation and improve school safety are discussed.
Journal Article
Social Workers’ Reports on Needs and Recommendations to Enhance School Safety
Issues with school safety and violence have raised concerns that warrant attention from researchers, policy makers, and practitioners alike. In this study, we explored how school social workers—a group of school personnel who are understudied in the school violence literature—experience school safety and violence in the United States. Using a sample of 271 school social workers, we analyzed qualitative responses to two open-ended survey questions: (a) What are the most concerning safety issues facing educators and staff in your school? (b) What policies, procedures, resources, or interventions are needed to better prevent or address violence in your school? Data were collected online between March and June 2022 by the American Psychological Association Task Force on Violence against Educators and School Personnel. Derived using a socioecological framework, findings reflect school social workers’ needs for workplace safety and perspectives on how to prevent and mitigate school violence at the school site, district, and community levels. Implications range from promoting strong relationships in schools and between the school and community to bolstering funding sources that can sustain programs, training, and staffing aimed at improving experiences for all students. The implications of our findings for future research and practice are presented.
Journal Article
Teachers' Use and Beliefs About Praise: A Mixed-Methods Study
Using a convergent parallel mixed methods design, we examined changes in teachers' use of praise during instruction (verbal or nonverbal statements or gestures to provide feedback for appropriate behavior) and explored teachers' perceptions regarding barriers and facilitators to using praise during coaching. Forty-eight teachers who identified praise as a professional development goal participated in the quantitative strand and 11 of the 48 teachers participated in the qualitative strand. Mixed effects zero-inflated negative binomial models revealed that teachers used 4.03 praise statements per 30-min observation at baseline, which increased by a factor of 1.05 between coaching sessions. Praise discrepancy scores at baseline were estimated at 7.48 with an average decrease (reflecting reduced need for change) of −0.25 over time. Thematic analyses of coaching sessions highlighted facilitators (e.g., feedback without having to criticize) and barriers (e.g., interferes with instruction) to using praise, although the integration of quantitative and qualitative findings did not yield consistent patterns between the number of facilitators or barriers coded and specific teacher outcomes. Implications for the practice of school psychologists in their work with teachers along with future directions for research are discussed.
Journal Article
Classroom Strategies Coaching Model: Integration of Formative Assessment and Instructional Coaching
This article describes the theory, key components, and empirical support for the Classroom Strategies Coaching (CSC) Model, a data-driven coaching approach that systematically integrates data from multiple observations to identify teacher practice needs and goals, design practice plans, and evaluate progress towards goals. The primary aim of the model is to improve teachers' use of specific evidenced-based instructional and behavioral management practices at the claxsssroom level. Key components of the model include integration of instruction and classroom behavior management; brief structured problem solving framework; formative assessment with a validated observation instrument; establishing measurable goals; and visual performance feedback. Results from a randomized controlled study offer emerging evidence of the potential impact of formative assessment and coaching on teacher classroom practices in elementary schools. Additionally, we offer recommendations for future research and practice.
Journal Article
One size does not fit all: a concurrent analysis of the framework for teaching and the Classroom Strategies Assessment System
The present study examined the concurrent validity between two different classroom observational assessments, the Danielson Framework for Teaching (FFT: Danielson 2013) and the Classroom Strategies Assessment System (CSAS; Reddy & Dudek 2014). Twenty-four administrators from 8 high-poverty charter schools conducted 324 annual teacher evaluations for 221 Kindergarten through 12th grade teachers across three school years. Pearson correlations were computed between each measure’s calculated summative scores. Small to medium positive and two negative correlations (i.e., CSAS Vague Directives and Behavior Corrective Feedback) were found between FFT Domains 2 (Classroom Environment) and 3 (Instruction) and CSAS Strategy Counts. Negative medium to large correlations were found between FFT Domains 2 and 3 and CSAS Strategy Rating scale discrepancy scores. Overall, findings revealed that the FFT and CSAS scores offer conceptually similar and dissimilar constructs, and yield complementary information for educator evaluation practices. Implications for research, practice, and policy are presented.
Journal Article
A Multidisciplinary Framework of Instructional Coaching
Across a wide variety of disciplines, coaching has become the universal practice for improving the professional performance of individuals and, consequently, the effectiveness of their organizations. Despite these shared outcomes, the coaching of individuals such as executives, athletes, and teachers features a variety of approaches, each with its own set of unique coaching elements. The literature in the respective fields has struggled to keep pace investigating the efficacy of these approaches and the relative impact of their elements. Programmatic research on coaching is further challenged by a paucity of conceptual frameworks. To address this challenge, we examined the coaching literature in the fields of education, sports, and business, highlighting a complimentary array of coaching purposes, elements, and processes. Based on this literature, we propose a new framework to specifically advance instructional coaching in the field of education. The content-neutral framework identifies 3 key dimensions of instructional coaching that can situate task- and subject-specific coaching models. Directions for the development of conceptual models and programmatic research are discussed.
Journal Article