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Interactions between wild birds and ticks exert significant selective forces, influencing the host's evolution and fitness. Tick infestation rates vary among bird species due to life history and morphology. Understanding tick infestation probability is crucial for conservation efforts, as birds play an important role in the tick life cycle and can transmit tick‐borne pathogens. In this context, it is essential to understand how life history traits or phylogenetic relationships determine tick infestation probability in the tropics. This study aims to identify wild bird life history traits and habitat characteristics associated with tick infestation probability in the Colombian tropical region. We hypothesized that larger body size, migratory behavior, foraging in lower vegetation stratum, seasonal aggregation, and inhabiting natural habitats increase tick infestation probability. We used a dataset with 3488 wild bird records from 322 species and 41 families, obtained from 61 Colombian localities (26 in the Orinoquia and 35 in the Andean regions). We used phylogenetic generalized linear mixed Bayesian models to assess tick infestation probability based on life history traits, body size, and geographic distribution. Of the birds analyzed, 3.2% were infested by ticks, mainly in immature stages (95%). Our results indicated a lower probability of tick infestation in agricultural habitats and higher elevations. Ground‐foraging species exhibited a lower infestation probability, contrary to previous reports. We found a significant phylogenetic relationship, indicating that related species have similar probabilities of tick infestation compared to more distantly related species. This study provides valuable insights into the bird–tick association, with implications for disease management and bird conservation.

Background: Amblyomma is the third most diversified genus of Ixodidae that is distributed across the Indomalayan, Afrotropical, Australasian (IAA), Nearctic and Neotropical biogeographic ecoregions, reaching in the Neotropic its highest diversity. There have been hints in previously published phylogenetic trees from mitochondrial genome, nuclear rRNA, from combinations of both and morphology that the Australasian Amblyomma or the Australasian Amblyomma plus the Amblyomma species from the southern cone of South America, might be sister-group to the Amblyomma of the rest of the world. However, a stable phylogenetic framework of Amblyomma for a better understanding of the biogeographic patterns underpinning its diversification is lacking. Methods: We used genomic techniques to sequence complete and nearly complete mitochondrial genomes –ca. 15 kbp– as well as the nuclear ribosomal cluster –ca. 8 kbp– for 17 Amblyomma ticks in order to study the phylogeny and biogeographic pattern of the genus Amblyomma, with particular emphasis on the Neotropical region. The new genomic information generated here together with genomic information available on 43 ticks (22 other Amblyomma species and 21 other hard ticks–as outgroup–) were used to perform probabilistic methods of phylogenetic and biogeographic inferences and time-tree estimation using biogeographic dates. Results: In the present paper, we present the strongest evidence yet that Australasian Amblyomma may indeed be the sister-group to the Amblyomma of the rest of the world (species that occur mainly in the Neotropical and Afrotropical zoogeographic regions). Our results showed that all Amblyomma subgenera (Cernyomma, Anastosiella, Xiphiastor, Adenopleura, Aponomma and Dermiomma) are not monophyletic, except for Walkeriana and Amblyomma. Likewise, our best biogeographic scenario supports the origin of Amblyomma and its posterior diversification in the southern hemisphere at 47.8 and 36.8 Mya, respectively. This diversification could be associated with the end of the connection of Australasia and Neotropical ecoregions by the Antarctic land bridge. Also, the biogeographic analyses let us see the colonization patterns of some neotropical Amblyomma species to the Nearctic. Conclusions: We found strong evidence that the main theater of diversification of Amblyomma was the southern hemisphere, potentially driven by the Antarctic Bridge's intermittent connection in the late Eocene. In addition, the subgeneric classification of Amblyomma lacks evolutionary support. Future studies using denser taxonomic sampling may lead to new findings on the phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic history of Amblyomma genus.

Bat flies (Nycteribiidae and Streblidae) have been used to study co-evolutionary patterns between ectoparasites and bats. In the world, Nycteribiidae and Streblidae are represented by approximately 276 and 237 species, respectively. In regions such as the Orinoquia located in the north of South America (Colombia and Venezuela), the richness of bats is high (more than 100 documented species), but studies on Nycteribiidae and Streblidae are scarce and discontinuous. To contribute to the knowledge of ectoparasitic flies in the Orinoquia, records of flies and their interactions with bats were reviewed, including new records and associations using interaction networks. We documented 124 species of Streblidae and only 12 of Nycteribiidae for the Orinoquia in approximately 102 bat species reported in Colombia and Venezuela. New records for six species of bat flies in Colombia were found ( Mastoptera guimaraesi , Noctiliostrebla maai , Paradyschiria parvuloides , Trichobius jubatus , Trichobius parasiticus , and Basilia ferrisi ) associated with six species of bats ( Cynomops planirostris , Desmodus rotundus , Myotis handleyi , Molossus rufus , Noctilio albiventris , and Phyllostomus hastatus ). The bat-ectoparasite interaction networks in the Orinoquia revealed a pattern of antagonistic relationships, with high specialization, modularity, and low connectivity and nesting. The identified networks are between bat fly species belonging to different ecomorphological groups with unique host species. This supports the idea of ecological niche partitioning among ectoparasitic bat flies and hosts. Our study expanded the knowledge of the distribution of some fly species and the associations with bat hosts in Colombia, by presenting morphological descriptions and new observations, which are key to understanding the ecology, diversity, and distribution of these species.

The genus 'Borrelia' encompasses spirochetal species that are part of three well-defined groups. Two of these groups contain pathogens that affect humans: the group causing Lyme disease (LDG) and the relapsing fever group (RFG). Lyme disease is caused by 'Borrelia burgdorferi' s.l., which is distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, and relapsing fevers are caused by 'Borrelia' spp., which are found in temperate and tropical countries and are an emerging but neglected pathogens. In some departments of Colombia, there are records of the presence of 'Borrelia' sp. in humans and bats. However, little is known about the impact and circulation of 'Borrelia' spp. in the country, especially in wildlife, which can act as a reservoir and/or amplifying host. In this context, the objective of our research was to detect and identify the 'Borrelia' species present in wild mammals in the departments of Caldas and Risaralda in Colombia. For morphological detection, blood smears and organ imprints were performed, and molecular identification was carried out through a nested PCR directed on the flagellin B ('flaB') gene. A total of 105 mammals belonging to three orders (Chiroptera, Didelphimorphia and Rodentia) were analyzed, of which 15.24% (n = 16) were positive for Borrelia. Molecularly, the presence of 'Borrelia burgdorferi' s.s. in lung tissues of 'Thomasomys aureus' and blood of 'Mus musculus' (Rodentia) was detected, with 99.64 and 100% identity, respectively. 'Borrelia' sp. genospecies from a clade branch of a bat-associated LDG sister group were identified in seven individuals of bat species, such as 'Artibeus lituratus', 'Carollia brevicauda', 'Sturnira erythromos', and 'Glossophaga soricina'. Furthermore, two 'Borrelia' genospecies from the RFG in seven individuals of bats ('A. lituratus', 'Artibeus jamaicensis', 'Platyrrhinus helleri', 'Mesophylla macconnelli', 'Rhynchonycteris naso') and rodents ('Coendou rufescens', 'Microryzomys altissimus') were documented. Additionally, the presence of a spirochete was detected by microscopy in the liver of a 'Sturnira erythromos' bat specimen. These results contain the first molecular evidence of the presence of 'B. burgdorferi' s.s. in South America, which merits the need for comprehensive studies involving arthropods and vertebrates (including humans) in other departments of Colombia, as well as neighboring countries, to understand the current status of the circulation of 'Borrelia' spp. in South America.

Landscape structure and configuration may affect bird body condition, with contrasting effects on resident and migratory species. There is little empirical evidence to support this hypothesis in tropical regions, where land-use change poses a major threat to biodiversity. We aimed to assess the effects of landscape structure and configuration on the body condition of neotropical migrant and resident bird species. We compiled body condition data (using the scaled mass index) of nine bird species (five resident and four migratory). We characterized landscape structure and configuration at 26 localities. We evaluated the effects of landscape metrics on bird body condition using Bayesian linear mixed models. The landscapes in our study largely varied in forest, crop, and grassland cover, as well as in landscape metrics. When we examined migrant birds, we found a positive effect of landscape connectivity and crop cover on body condition. Similarly, body condition of resident birds was positively affected by connectivity and crop cover, but also by forest patch area and capture day. Changes in landscape structure and configuration may indirectly alter the access to resources, causing additional energy expenditures, leading to a deteriorated body condition. Conversely, landscape heterogeneity may have a positive effect on bird body condition. Therefore, we recommend maintaining connectivity and complementary resources in the landscape.

The genus Rhinella (Bufonidae) comprises 92 species of Neotropical toads. In Colombia, Rhinella is represented by 22 recognized species, of which nine belong to the Rhinella festae group. Over the past decade, there has been increasing evidence of cryptic diversity within this group, particularly in the context of Andean forms. Specimens of Rhinella collected in high Andean forests on both slopes of the Central Cordillera in Colombia belong to an undescribed species, Rhinella kumanday sp. nov. Genetic analyses using the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene indicated that the individuals belong to the festae species group. However, they can be distinguished from other closely related species such as Rhinella paraguas and Rhinella tenrec by a combination of morphological traits including the presence of tarsal fold, a moderate body size, and substantial genetic divergence in the 16S rRNA gene (> 5%). Through this integrative approach, the specimens from the Central Cordillera of Colombia are considered an evolutionary divergent lineage that is sister to R. paraguas , and described as a new species. Rhinella kumanday sp. nov. is restricted to the Central Cordillera of Colombia inhabiting both slopes in the departments of Caldas and Tolima, in an elevational range between 2420 and 3758 m. With the recognition of this new species, the genus Rhinella now comprises 93 species with 23 of them found in Colombia, and ten species endemic to the country.

The genus Molossops includes two monotypic species of insectivore bats distributed in South America: Molossops neglectus and Molossops temminckii . Both can be differentiated, based on sizes, M. temminckii being smaller (forearm less than 33 mm). Despite being monotypic, at least two additional subspecies have been described for M. temminckii , of which M. temminckii griseiventer from the inter-Andean Valley of the Magdalena River in Colombia might represent a valid taxon. To test the taxonomic status of M. t. griseiventer , we reviewed specimens of M. temminckii from cis- and trans-Andean localities in Colombia. We used Cytochrome-b and Cytochrome Oxidase I comparisons to test the phylogenetic position of cis- and trans-Andean samples and compared qualitative morphology, morphometric and bioacoustics. Our results show that M. t. griseiventer is differentiated from cis-Andean specimens, providing further evidence of its validity at the species level. Furthermore, M. temminckii (sensu stricto) is also distributed in Colombia, but both M. griseiventer and M. temminckii are allopatric, with the Andes acting as a barrier. The specific identity of the specimens from the Caribbean Region of Colombia needs a new evaluation, but our results clearly show that the diversity of Molossops is underestimated.

The western or desert red bat, Lasiurus frantzii , is a cryptic insectivore species distributed in the Neotropics from Mexico south through Central America to Panama. L. frantzii was long considered a subspecies of the red bat, Lasiurus blossevillii , but recently it was elevated to full-species status based on genetic information. Here we present evidence of the presence of L. frantzii in the Andean Region of Colombia, confirming the species’ presence in South America; the new record, from 3836 m a.s.l., is also the highest elevation known for the species. We suggest that L. frantzii might be widely distributed in trans-Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and perhaps Peru and Bolivia. However, a review and exploration of additional morphological traits to identify the species are necessary because of the uncertainty of the distribution of L. frantzii .

Flies belonging to the families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae are highly specialized arthropods that feed on the blood of bats. Their morphology varies and has adapted throughout their coevolutionary history with hosts. Bat flies are often associated with specific bat species and can establish distinct infracommunities. Interaction networks have been used to better understand these associations, revealing interaction modules between bats and their parasites. The Magdalena River basin is the largest in Colombia, encompassing a wide variety of climatic and ecological conditions, with up to 98 bat species reported. We conducted field trips to capture bats and bat flies in different locations along the basin and reviewed literature records and biological collections to gather additional data on interactions between bats and bat flies in this region. We found a high diversity of bats and bat flies in the Magdalena River basin, revealing a medium specialization and modularity in these interactions. We identified bat fly infracommunities and negative associations between certain bat fly species, suggesting competition for resources within hosts. The specialization is similar to that reported in degraded and fragmented habitats where the availability of shelters decreases, favoring the overcrowding of bats, forming multi-species colonies. In conclusion, our study provides important information on the interactions between bats and bat flies in the Magdalena River basin, expanding knowledge about the diversity and structure of these communities in inter-Andean landscapes.

Agricultural systems have increased in extension and intensity worldwide, altering vertebrate functional diversity, ecosystem functioning, and ecosystemic services. However, the effects of open monoculture crops on bird functional diversity remain little explored, particularly in highly biodiverse regions such as the tropical Andes. We aim to assess the functional diversity differences of bird guilds between monoculture crops (coffee, cocoa, and citrus) and secondary forests. We use four functional diversity indices (Rao Q, Functional Richness, Functional Evenness, and Functional Divergence) related to relevant morphological, life history, and behavioral traits. We find significant differences in functional diversity between agroecosystem and forest habitats. Particularly, bird functional diversity is quite homogeneous among crop types. Functional traits related to locomotion (body weight, wing-chord length, and tail length), nest type (closed), and foraging strata (canopy and understory) are dominant at the agroecosystems. The bird assemblages found at the agroecosystems are more homogeneous in terms of functional diversity than those found at the secondary forests, as a result of crop structure and management. We recommend promoting more diverse agroecosystems to enhance bird functional diversity and reduce their effects on biodiversity.