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\"When Avatar (2009) became the highest grossing movie of all time, it marked a high point in 3D cinema's turbulent history. Although 3D cinema draws in box-office takings that surpass 2D cinema, it continuously emerges and disappears as a passing fad. Experiments with 3D moving-images have been with us since the birth of cinema, and it is a form of visual expression already seen by billions of twenty-first century viewers, yet there is little understanding of how 3D cinema operates as an art form. We know that it simultaneously uses depth modes to approximate our visual reality and spectacular effects that go beyond traditional perception, but we do not have an appropriate grasp of its creative function. This book examines 3D cinema's unique visual regime in order to understand the optical illusions and tactile experiences that it presents\"-- Provided by publisher.

Moving on land versus in water imposes dramatically different requirements on the musculoskeletal system. Although many limbed vertebrates, such as salamanders and prehistoric tetrapodomorphs, have an axial system specialized for aquatic locomotion and an appendicular system adapted for terrestrial locomotion, diverse extant teleosts use the axial musculoskeletal system (body plus caudal fin) to move in these two physically disparate environments. In fact, teleost fishes living at the water’s edge demonstrate diversity in natural history that is reflected in a variety of terrestrial behaviors: (1) species that have only incidental contact with land (such as largemouth bass, Micropterus) will repeatedly thrash, which can roll an individual downhill, but cannot produce effective overland movements, (2) species that have occasional contact with land (like Gambusia, the mosquitofish, which evade predators by stranding themselves) will produce directed terrestrial movement via a tail-flip jump, and (3) species that spend more than half of their lives on land (like the mudskipper, Periopthalmus) will produce a prone-jump, a behavior that allows the fish to anticipate where it will land at the end of the flight phase. Both tail-flip and prone jumps are characterized by a two-phase movement consisting of body flexion followed by extension—a movement pattern that is markedly similar to the aquatic fast-start. Convergence in kinematic pattern between effective terrestrial behaviors and aquatic fast starts suggests that jumps are an exaptation of a neuromuscular system that powers unsteady escape behaviors in the water. Despite such evidence that terrestrial behaviors evolved from an ancestral behavior that is ubiquitous among teleosts, some teleosts are unable to move effectively on land—possibly due to morphological trade-offs, wherein specialization for one environment comes at a cost to performance in the other. Indeed, upon emergence onto land, gravity places an increased mechanical load on the body, which may limit the maximum size of fish that can produce terrestrial locomotion via jumping. In addition, effective terrestrial locomotor performance may require a restructuring of the musculoskeletal system that directly conflicts with the low-drag, fusiform body shape that enhances steady swimming performance. Such biomechanical trade-offs may constrain which teleost species are able to make the evolutionary transition to life on land. Here, we synthesize the current knowledge of intermittent terrestrial locomotion in teleosts and demonstrate that extant fishes represent an important model system for elucidating fundamental evolutionary mechanisms and defining the physiological constraints that must be overcome to permit life in both the aquatic and terrestrial realms.

The square shape of the seahorse tail helps it resist mechanical deformation [Also see Research Article by Porter et al. ] Most animals and plants approximate a cylinder in shape, and where junctions occur (as with branches of trees or limbs on animals), those corners are “faired,” meaning smoothly curved so that one surface grades into the next ( 1 ). When living organisms deviate from the norm, there's usually a good biomechanical reason: a clue to some specific problem that needs to be solved. Among their suite of unusual characteristics, seahorses possess a true oddity: a prehensile tail with a square, rather than round or elliptical, cross-sectional shape. On page 10.1126/science.aaa6683 of this issue, Porter et al. ( 2 ) report that there are distinct mechanical advantages to being square. Using three-dimensional (3D) printing to construct physical models, the team demonstrates that the multiplated anatomy of the square seahorse tail shows greater resistance to mechanical deformation than a similar model that has a round cross section.

The transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats was a seminal event in vertebrate evolution because it precipitated a sudden radiation of species as new land animals diversified in response to novel physical and biological conditions. However, the first stages of this environmental transition presented numerous challenges to ancestrally aquatic organisms, and necessitated changes in the morphological and physiological mechanisms that underlie most life processes, among them movement, feeding, respiration, and reproduction. How did solutions to these functional challenges evolve? One approach to this question is to examine modern vertebrate species that face analogous demands; just as the first tetrapods lived at the margins of bodies of water and likely moved between water and land regularly, many extant fishes and amphibians use their body systems in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats on a daily basis. Thus, studies of amphibious vertebrates elucidate the functional demands of two very different habitats and clarify our understanding of the initial evolutionary challenges of moving onto land. A complementary approach is to use studies of the fossil record and comparative development to gain new perspectives on form and function of modern amphibious and non-amphibious vertebrate taxa. Based on the synthetic approaches presented in the symposium, it is clear that our understanding of aquatic-to-terrestrial transitions is greatly improved by the reciprocal integration of paleontological and neontological perspectives. In addition, common themes and new insights that emerged from this symposium point to the value of innovative approaches, new model species, and cutting-edge research techniques to elucidate the functional challenges and evolutionary changes associated with vertebrates’ invasion of the land.

Synopsis Lateral undulation and trunk flexibility offer performance benefits to maneuverability, stability, and stride length (via speed and distance traveled). These benefits make them key characteristics of the locomotion of tetrapods with sprawling posture, with the exception of turtles. Despite their bony carapace preventing lateral undulations, turtles are able to improve their locomotor performance by increasing stride length via greater limb protraction. The goal of this study was to quantify the effect of reduced lateral flexibility in a generalized sprawling tetrapod, the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). We had two potential predictions: (1) either salamanders completely compensate by changing their limb kinematics, or (2) their performance (i.e., speed) will suffer due to the reduced lateral flexibility. This reduction was performed by artificially limiting trunk flexibility by attaching a 2-piece shell around the body between the pectoral and pelvic girdles. Adult tiger salamanders (n = 3; SVL = 9–14.5 cm) walked on a 1-m trackway under three different conditions: unrestricted, flexible shell (Tygon tubing), and rigid shell (PVC tubing). Trials were filmed in a single, dorsal view, and kinematics of entire midline and specific body regions (head, trunk, tail), as well as the fore and hind limbs, were calculated. Tygon individuals had significantly higher curvature than both PVC and unrestricted individuals for the body, but this trend was primarily driven by changes in tail movements. PVC individuals had significantly lower curvature in the trunk region compared with unrestricted individuals or Tygon; however, there was no difference between unrestricted and Tygon individuals suggesting the shells performed as expected. PVC and Tygon individuals had significantly higher curvature in the tails compared with unrestricted individuals. There were no significant differences for any limb kinematic variables among treatments including average, minimum, and maximum angles. Thus, salamanders respond to decreased lateral movement in their trunk by increasing movements in their tail, without changes in limb kinematics. These results suggest that tail undulations may be a more critical component to sprawling-postured tetrapod locomotion than previously recognized.

Neotropical suckermouth armored catfishes (Loricariidae) are known to exhibit terrestrial behaviors, but these have been poorly described. The goals of this study are to describe (1) the terrestrial locomotion of loricariid catfishes, (2) how their unique morphology may affect terrestrial movements, and (3) how behavior, performance, and kinematics relate to species and endurance. The terrestrial locomotion of four loricariid species (three species of Pterygoplichthys and one species of Hypostomus) was recorded using high-speed cameras. Videos were digitized in MATLAB and ImageJ to compare performance and kinematics between species and over time. Morphology was described using micro-computed tomography scans and dissections. Loricariid catfishes use a novel, highly asymmetric form of axial-appendage-based terrestrial locomotion involving their mouth, pectoral fins, pelvic fins, posterior axial body, and tail. As this behavior is so unlike any other described locomotor behavior, we have created a new word to describe it: reffling. These species have numerous unique morphological traits that may greatly reduce body and fin flexibility. Because loricariids are so inflexible, they may be constrained into reffling as their only means of terrestrial locomotion, but their stiffness may improve force transmission, allowing them to be among the fastest fishes on land. Overall, all four species examined had very similar terrestrial kinematics and performance. Their performance generally declined over time, but different species had different endurance levels. Because many loricariid species are invasive throughout the world, it is important to consider their capacity to disperse into new bodies of water overland in management plans and risk assessments.

Synopsis Animals live in heterogeneous environments must navigate in order to forage or capture food, defend territories, and locate mates. These heterogeneous environments have a variety of substrates that differ in their roughness, texture, and other properties, all of which may alter locomotor performance. Despite such natural variation in substrate, many studies on locomotion use noncompliant surfaces that either are unrepresentative of the range of substrates experienced by species or underestimate maximal locomotor capabilities. The goal of this study was to determine the role of forefeet and hindfeet on substrates with different properties during walking in a generalized sprawling tetrapod, the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum). Adult salamanders (n = 4, SVL = 11.2–14.6 cm) walked across level dry sand (DS), semi-soft plaster of Paris (PoP), wet sand (WS), and a hard, noncompliant surface (table)—substrates that vary in compliance. Trials were filmed in dorsal and anterior views. Videos were analyzed to determine the number of digits and surface area of each foot in contact with the substrate. The surface area of the forelimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS and PoP than on WS and the table. The surface area of the hindlimbs contacting the substrate was significantly greater on DS than on all other substrates. There were no significant differences in the time that the fore- or hindfeet were in contact with the substrate as determined by the number of digits. We conclude that salamanders modulate the use of their feet depending on the substrate, particularly on DS which is known to increase the mechanical work and energy expended during locomotion owing to the fluid nature of its loose particles. More studies are needed to test a wider range of substrates and to incorporate behavioral data from field studies to get a better understanding of how salamanders are affected by different substrates in their natural environment.

As the COVID-19 pandemic diminishes, it is expected that patients will seek more outpatient appointments resulting in adverse patient and clinic experiences if there is a corresponding increase in missed appointments. This study's purpose was to determine if there was an association between advanced access scheduling, also known as open access or same day scheduling, and missed appointment rates for patients scheduled with preferred primary care physicians vis-a-vis nonpreferred primary care physicians. Patients prescheduled with primary care providers and over the age of 18 years were included in the study, which totaled 4815 visits. Study results demonstrated a statistically significant mean proportion difference between the national no-show rate and the study's no-show rate as well as a significant association between physician type and visit status. The results suggested the potential for improving the patient experience with advanced access scheduling if patients are scheduled with their preferred primary care physician. This study may promote positive patient experiences by providing patients and clinicians with an understanding of the significance surrounding advanced access scheduling thus decreasing missed appointments.

This study of South American cinema offers a new way of approaching the variety of films available in the region. It brings to light the interconnectivity between state-run institutions (film councils, cinemateques, archives) altruistic bodies (film festival funds, NGOs) and commercial organisations (production companies, exhibitors and distributors). Examples of filmmakers, policy initiatives, funding sources and alternative film networks combine to produce a rich overview of one of the most.