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A compilation of global soil carbon data from field experiments provides empirical evidence that warming-induced net losses of soil carbon could accelerate climate change. Planetary warming and soil carbon loss Warming can enhance the exchange of carbon between the soil and the atmosphere, but there is no consensus on the direction or magnitude of warming-induced changes in soil carbon. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of warming-induced changes in soil carbon stocks based on data from field experiments across North America, Europe and Asia. The authors find that the effects of warming are contingent upon the size of the initial soil carbon stock, with considerable carbon losses occurring in high-latitude areas. Extrapolation of their findings to the global scale provides support for the idea that rising temperatures will stimulate the net loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, driving a positive land carbon–climate feedback that could accelerate climate change. The majority of the Earth’s terrestrial carbon is stored in the soil. If anthropogenic warming stimulates the loss of this carbon to the atmosphere, it could drive further planetary warming 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Despite evidence that warming enhances carbon fluxes to and from the soil 5 , 6 , the net global balance between these responses remains uncertain. Here we present a comprehensive analysis of warming-induced changes in soil carbon stocks by assembling data from 49 field experiments located across North America, Europe and Asia. We find that the effects of warming are contingent on the size of the initial soil carbon stock, with considerable losses occurring in high-latitude areas. By extrapolating this empirical relationship to the global scale, we provide estimates of soil carbon sensitivity to warming that may help to constrain Earth system model projections. Our empirical relationship suggests that global soil carbon stocks in the upper soil horizons will fall by 30 ± 30 petagrams of carbon to 203 ± 161 petagrams of carbon under one degree of warming, depending on the rate at which the effects of warming are realized. Under the conservative assumption that the response of soil carbon to warming occurs within a year, a business-as-usual climate scenario would drive the loss of 55 ± 50 petagrams of carbon from the upper soil horizons by 2050. This value is around 12–17 per cent of the expected anthropogenic emissions over this period 7 , 8 . Despite the considerable uncertainty in our estimates, the direction of the global soil carbon response is consistent across all scenarios. This provides strong empirical support for the idea that rising temperatures will stimulate the net loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere, driving a positive land carbon–climate feedback that could accelerate climate change.

Nature 525, 201–205 (2015); doi:10.1038/nature14967 In the first boldface paragraph of this Article, the global number of trees should be approximately ‘1.30 trillion’ (rather than ‘1.39 trillion’) for tropical and subtropical forests and ‘0.66 trillion’ (rather than ‘0.61 trillion’) for temperate regions.

We conducted a transplant study in which embryonic southern toads (Bufo terrestris) were held in a site polluted with coal ash (site AB; containing As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Se, and other elements) and a reference site (site R) through hatching and early larval development. To examine the remainder of the larval period, surviving larvae in AB were then transplanted to R and back-transplanted to AB, whereas surviving larvae from R were back-transplanted to R. Survival through early larval development was lower in AB than in R (34% versus 50%). However, site of hatching did not influence traits later in development (larval metabolic rate, larval morphology, duration of larval period, size at metamorphosis, or average hopping distance by metamorphs). Toads that spent the entire larval period in R had high rates of survival (70-94% of individuals transplanted after the embryonic period) regardless of where they spent the embryonic and early larval period. However, toads held in AB for the duration of the larval period suffered 100% mortality. Algal resources were scarce and their trace element concentrations high in AB compared to R, suggesting that mortality of larval toads resulted from a combination of direct toxicity (via sediment- and foodborne exposure) and indirect effects on resource abundance. The study suggests that the widespread practice of disposing of coal ash in open aquatic basins may result in sink habitats for some amphibian populations.

This memorial volume both displays and evaluates the canonical approach of Brevard S. Childs, whose attention to history through time animated his interest in the Bible’s use in the church through the ages up to and including the present. Just as Childs wrote on a wide range of topics canonical and theological—both Testaments, Isaiah and Exodus, the Pauline letters, the history of biblical interpretation, biblical theology, and historical, theological, and methodological questions—the contributors to this volume, seasoned colleagues as well as younger scholars who studied with Childs, offer an international collection of historical, theological, and New Testament essays as well as contributions focused on the Old Testament. The contributors are Stephen B. Chapman, Brevard S. Childs, Don Collett, Daniel R. Driver, Mark W. Elliott, Leonard G. Finn, Mark Gignilliat, Bernd Janowski, Jörg Jeremias, Leander E. Keck, Neil B. MacDonald, David L. Petersen, Murray A. Rae, C. Kavin Rowe, and Christopher R. Seitz.

\"It's good to be able to do what you've trained for,\" said squad leader Sergeant Clifford Happy. \"Out here, we're more on our own, more responsible. And this is real, not just another training exercise. No one wants to have someone shoot at them. But, if it happens, we're ready.\"

Being grunts was the proverbial bottom line in Orange Crush. It may be the most challenging occupation going. \"It's hard work being a grunt,\" Capt [Joe Pilcher] admitted. \"When you train, you always have to remember that the mistakes you make could possibly get you killed in combat.\"

They also faced the often harsh Norwegian climate. During the exercise, it was cold and it rained, but conditions could have been worse. \"We were very fortunate with the weather we had,\" said Lieutenant Per Strand, the Norwegian liaison officer who served with Co. \"F\". \"It could have been freezing rain or snow. We sometimes have that at this time of year.\"