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Although studies have consistently found negative correlations between second language (L2) anxiety and L2 achievement, the anxiety concept is criticized for the failure to consider confounding variables, particularly first language (L1) achievement, in the relationship between language anxiety and language achievement. Also, past studies tend to rely on cross-sectional data to conclude causality. To assess long-term causal relationships between L1 and L2 achievement, the study used structural equation modeling to examine pathways by which L1 achievement is associated with L2 reading anxiety after two years via several mediators: L1 working memory, L1 print exposure, and L1 metalinguistic knowledge; L2 aptitude (MLAT); and L2 reading, writing, and listening comprehension. Students (n = 293) in a U.S. secondary school were administered these measures and followed through first-year Spanish. Findings showed the effect of L1 achievement on later L2 reading anxiety was direct and indirect through L2 aptitude, L2 achievement, and L1 metalinguistic knowledge. Effects of L2 achievement and L1 metalinguistic knowledge on L2 reading anxiety were direct. An out-of-sample analysis for model prediction power supported the external validity of the study results. We recommend that teachers and learners deal with L1/L2 skills, rather than anxiety per se, in order to reduce sense of L2 reading anxiety.

The simple view of reading (SVR) model proposes that reading comprehension is the product of cognitive domain skills, word decoding, and oral language (linguistic) comprehension, and that decoding and language comprehension make separate, independent contributions to reading comprehension. The SVR has been supported in both first (L1) and second language (L2) reading research as a viable model to explain more and less successful reading acquisition and to recommend instructional intervention. This article reviews L1 and L2 reading research that supports the SVR and explains how the model can be used to assess foreign language (FL) reading skills, identify strong and weak FL readers, and identify FL readers' strengths and weaknesses. Specific examples of standardized cognitive and linguistic measures for English and Spanish used to assess word decoding and language comprehension skills are cited. Implications of the SVR model for assessment and pedagogy are discussed.

A unique anxiety for foreign language (L2) learning has been hypothesized to explain students' problems with language learning. However, L2 anxiety instruments have been challenged on the grounds that they reflect students' language learning ability and/or perceptions of their language learning skills. In this study, 266 U.S. high school students were administered measures of first language (L1) skills, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement and followed through 2-3 years of Spanish courses. In 1st-year Spanish, they were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS), divided into 3 anxiety groups, and compared on the L1 and L2 measures. Findings showed that the Low Anxiety group scored significantly higher than the High Anxiety group on all L1 and L2 measures, and significantly higher than the Average Anxiety group on most L1 and L2 measures at the end of 1st- and 2nd-year Spanish. Students who completed 3rd-year Spanish displayed either low or average anxiety on the FLRAS. Results revealed negative correlations between the FLRAS and all L1 and L2 measures. Correlations between the FLRAS and the L2 achievement measures increased over time. Findings show that the FLRAS is unlikely to be measuring anxiety for language learning but more likely to be a proxy for students' levels of L1 skill, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement. (Verlag).

Second language (L2) educators have proposed a unique anxiety for general L2 learning and an anxiety specific to L2 reading. Since the early 1990s, the L2 anxiety concept has been challenged on theoretical and empirical grounds. In this investigation, U.S. high school L2 learners were administered the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) and measures of first language (L1) skills, L1 phonological memory and working memory, L1 print exposure, L1 reading attitudes, L1 metacognitive ability, L2 aptitude, and L2 achievement, then were followed through 2 to 3 years of Spanish. Results showed that the FLRAS explained significant unique variance in most L1 skills and L2 aptitude. Hierarchical regressions showed that the FLRAS explained growth in L2 achievement from first‐ to second‐ to third‐year Spanish. Findings suggest that the FLRAS is likely to measure individual differences in or self‐perceptions of students’ language learning skills rather than a specific anxiety for L2 learning. Implications for the teaching of L2s to U.S. students are discussed. The Challenge Language anxiety is thought to help or hinder U.S. students’ learning in L2 courses. But does it? This article presents results showing that language anxiety on an L2 reading anxiety scale is more likely to represent individual differences in students’ language skills.

A factor analysis of a test battery that included early first-language (L1) achievement, L1 cognitive ability, second-language (L2) aptitude, and L2 affective measures to predict oral and written L2 proficiency was conducted. The analysis yielded 4 factors that were labeled Language Analysis, composed of L1 and L2 language comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, and inductive language learning measures; Phonology/Orthography, composed of L1 and L2 phonemic coding and phonological processing measures; IQ/Memory, composed of L1 intelligence and L2 paired-associate learning measures; and Self-Perceptions of Language Skills, composed of L2 motivation and L2 anxiety measures. The 4 factors explained 76% of the variance in oral and written L2 proficiency. Findings support the view that L2 aptitude is componential. Results are discussed in the context of long-term L1-L2 relationships and individual differences in L2 learning. (Verlag).

Second language (L2) anxiety has been proposed to play a causal role in L2 achievement. However, most studies have failed to acknowledge confounding variables that may be relevant to the study of anxiety and L2 achievement or to investigate the causal effect of L2 anxiety using longitudinal data. For these reasons, we investigated the effect of L1 reading achievement , L2 aptitude , and L2 anxiety as covariates on the growth of L2 reading achievement across three time points. We used the latent growth curve model (LGCM) to estimate the growth trajectory of US secondary school students’ L2 reading growth in Spanish ( N = 307) over three school years. The findings showed that students’ L1 reading achievement and L2 aptitude strongly and significantly predicted L2 reading achievement growth. However, L2 anxiety did not predict L2 reading achievement growth. Findings suggest that growth in L2 reading achievement depends on the language-related skills used for L1 reading and the language skills that comprise L2 aptitude, but not on anxiety. Similar to past cross-sectional studies, L2 anxiety related only to initial levels of L2 reading achievement, suggesting that anxiety reflects students’ initial experience of L2 reading but not their L2 achievement.

Cunningham and Stanovich reported a longitudinal investigation over 10 years that examined the unique influence of exposure to print in explaining individual differences on various measures of reading achievement and declarative (general) knowledge. The present study replicated their investigation with a larger number of participants and additional measures of literacy and language skills. Fifty-four 1st graders were administered reading, spelling, vocabulary, IQ, and listening comprehension measures and then followed to the end of 10th grade. At the end of 10th grade, they were administered an IQ test and measures of reading comprehension, language ability, general knowledge, and exposure to print. Results showed that 1st grade reading skills were a strong predictor of 10th grade outcomes. Second and third-grade reading skills were predictive of individual differences in print exposure even after 10th grade reading comprehension and language ability had been partialed. Individual differences in print exposure also predicted differences in the growth of reading ability, word decoding, spelling, vocabulary, and listening comprehension throughout the elementary grades. Findings confirm the powerful, long-term benefits of providing children with a fast start in reading and support the reciprocal nature of strong reading skills and engagement in reading and reading-related activities.

Studies with U.S. secondary second language (L2) learners have revealed individual differences (IDs) in first language (L1) skills and L2 aptitude and shown that these IDs are related to L2 achievement and proficiency. In this study, U.S. students were administered measures of L1 achievement, L1 cognitive processing, and L2 aptitude; followed through 2 to 3 years of Spanish courses; and administered standardized measures of Spanish achievement at the end of each year. Students were divided into high‐, average‐, and low‐achieving groups according to their scores on the Spanish measures and compared on the L1 measures and L2 aptitude test. Findings showed significant overall group differences on most L1 measures and significant between‐group differences on most L1 measures and the L2 aptitude test. IDs in L1 literacy, L1 working memory, and L2 aptitude best discriminated among students who completed 2 versus 3 years of Spanish. Results support claims that IDs in L2 achievement mirror IDs in L1 skills and provide evidence for the crosslinguistic transfer of L1 to L2 skills. The Challenge Students are thought to develop full competence in their mother tongue and to exhibit little or no variance in their first language (L1) skills. But do they? What if students in second language (L2) classrooms vary considerably in L1 skills such as literacy, vocabulary, and working memory, and in their language aptitude? The present study presents results showing that students’ L1 skills and L2 aptitude not only vary considerably but also mirror their L2 achievement.

Fifty‐four students were followed over 10 years and tested with native language measures in first through fifth grades and measures of foreign language aptitude and foreign language proficiency in high school. All students had completed two years of Spanish, French, or German. Students were divided into three groups based on their scores on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). Findings showed that the low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all native language measures beginning in second grade. The low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all measures of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude, and also achieved higher foreign language course grades. Few differences were found between the low anxious and average anxious groups on the native language and foreign language testing measures. Findings also showed that the FLCAS was negatively correlated with native language measures of reading, spelling, and vocabulary as early as the beginning of first grade. The results suggest that the FLCAS is likely to be measuring students' perceptions of their language learning skills, and that language skills are likely to be a confounding variable in the findings of researchers who suggest that anxiety plays a primary role in foreign language proficiency and achievement.

Studies have shown that U.S. learners’ proficiency in reading and listening comprehension lags behind their ability to decode words. Recent studies have found that even after 3 years of high school L2 courses, U.S. students fail to develop minimal proficiency in reading comprehension. This paper suggests that while cognitive factors (word decoding and listening comprehension) explain the largest amount of variance in learners’ ability to comprehend text, this model, known as the Simple View of Reading, does not consider other factors that may contribute to reading achievement, especially in a largely monolingual English context. In contrast, the Component Model of Reading posits that reading ability is influenced not only by cognitive skills but also by factors in the ecological and psychological domains. In particular, the U.S. social context hampers primarily monolingual English speakers from becoming proficient in L2 oral language and L2 reading comprehension. Pedagogical recommendations are offered. The Challenge Cognitive factors in the Simple View of Reading, L2 word decoding, and L2 listening comprehension explain the largest amount of variance in L2 reading comprehension. But, do cognitive skills alone explain why U.S. L2 learners exhibit poor reading and language comprehension skills? This paper explores the ecological and psychological factors that contribute to L2 language comprehension in a monolingual environment.