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Laboratory and field bioassays were conducted to evaluate the pathogenicity of an endophytic and a soil isolate of the entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. against different stages of squash beetle, Epilachna chrysomelina (F.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Both isolates were identified by ITS rDNA sequence analysis. Both isolates were pathogenic to the squash beetle; however, their potential was different according to the conidia concentration and the exposure period. Three days post treatment, (100%) mortality rate was obtained, when the first and second larval instars were treated by the B. bassiana ES (soil isolate) compared to 83.67 and 72.60%, respectively when treated with the endophytic isolate. A percentage of 17.67% malformation occurred among the adults that emerged from treated pupae. The highest mortality percentage under field conditions were 28.67 and 22.33% for larvae and adults, respectively.

The squash beetle Epilachna chrysomelina (F.) is an important insect pest which causes severe damage to cucurbit plants in Iraq. The aims of this study were to isolate and characterize an endogenous isolate of Myrothecium-like species from cucurbit plants and from soil in order to evaluate its pathogenicity to squash beetle. Paramyrothecium roridum (Tode) L. Lombard & Crous was isolated, its phenotypic characteristics were identified and ITS rDNA sequence analysis was done. The pathogenicity of P. roridum strain (MT019839) was evaluated at a concentration of 107 conidia · ml–1) water against larvae and adults of E. chrysomelina under laboratory conditions. The results revealed the pathogenicity of the isolate to larvae with variations between larvae instar responses. The highest mortality percentage was reported when the adults were placed in treated litter and it differed significantly from adults treated directly with the pathogen. Our results documented for the first time that P. roridum has potential as an insect pathogen.

Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) (EE Genbank No. MH374537) isolated from cucumber leaves as natural endophyte and B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) (ES, Genbank No. MH374538), isolated from soil samples, were transplanted to pumpkin plants via foliar spray, soil drench, and seed treatments, among other ways. The results demonstrated that all three inoculation procedures were efficient in introducing B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) isolates as endophytes into the pumpkin plant, but to varying degrees. B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) was recovered from leaves and stems using foliar spray methods and from leaves, stems, and roots by seed treatment inoculation method, and only the stem was separated in drench inoculation method.

Beauveria bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) (EE Genbank No. MH374537) isolated from cucumber leaves as natural endophyte and B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) (ES, Genbank No. MH374538), isolated from soil samples, were transplanted to pumpkin plants via foliar spray, soil drench, and seed treatments, among other ways. The results demonstrated that all three inoculation procedures were efficient in introducing B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) isolates as endophytes into the pumpkin plant, but to varying degrees. B. bassiana (Bals.-Criv.) Vuill. (1912) was recovered from leaves and stems using foliar spray methods and from leaves, stems, and roots by seed treatment inoculation method, and only the stem was separated in drench inoculation method.

Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) is a key biomarker for assessing long-term glycemic control in individuals with diabetes mellitus, providing insight into average blood glucose levels over the past two to three months. This review evaluates the efficacy of HbA1c as a predictive marker for diabetic complications, which are categorized into microvascular (including retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy) and macrovascular (primarily cardiovascular diseases). Extensive research demonstrates a strong correlation between elevated HbA1c levels and increased risks of complications, with landmark studies such as the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) establishing the benefits of maintaining HbA1c below 7% in reducing complications. However, the use of HbA1c is not without limitations, including interindividual variability, the inability to capture daily glucose fluctuations, and the potential for misleading results due to conditions such as hemoglobinopathies. As a result, while HbA1c remains a cornerstone in diabetes management and a valuable tool for predicting the risk of complications, a multifaceted approach that incorporates additional glucose monitoring methods is essential for optimizing patient care. This review aims to highlight both the strengths and limitations of HbA1c, as well as the need for ongoing research to enhance its predictive accuracy in clinical settings.