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At the southern limit of its range the endangered butterfly Coenonympha oedippus inhabits grasslands (wet, dry) that differ significantly in the abundance of its larval hostplants (wet > dry) and mean annual air temperature (wet < dry). We determined the difference in the wing morphology of individuals in the two contrasting habitats to test whether and how traits associated with wing size, shape and eye like spots vary in the sexes and two ecotypes. We show that sexual dimorphism follows the same (wing size and shape, number of eyespots on forewing) or different (relative area of eyespots on hindwings) patterns in the two contrasting habitats. Irrespective of ecotype, females had larger, longer and narrower wings, and more forewing eyespots than males. Sexual dimorphism in the relative area of eyespots on hindwing was female-biased in the wet, but male-biased in the dry ecotype. Ecotype dimorphism in wing size and the relative area of eyespots on the hindwing is best explained by mean annual air temperature and abundance of host-plants. While ecotype dimorphism in wing size did not differ between sexes, neither in direction (wet > dry) or in degree, in the two sexes the relative area of eyespots on hindwing had opposite patterns (males: dry > wet; females: wet > dry) and was more pronounced in males than in females. The differences in wing shape between ecotypes were detected only in the hindwings of males, with more rounded apex in the dry than in the wet ecotype. We discuss the life-history traits, behavioural strategies and selection mechanisms, which largely account for the sex- and ecotype-specific variation in wing morphology.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1603358.].

Sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) are important vectors of pathogens, including Leishmania parasites and phleboviruses, but their distribution and seasonal activity in Slovenia have not been sufficiently studied. This study presents a comprehensive three-year (2020–2022) surveillance programme aimed at assessing the diversity of sandfly species, their distribution, seasonal dynamics and potential role as vectors of pathogens. A total of 1,240 sandflies were collected at 43 sampling sites across Slovenia, identifying Phlebotomus papatasi, P. neglectus, P. perniciosus and P. mascittii . The highest abundance and species diversity were observed in the Mediterranean and Karst regions. Seasonal activity peaked in July, with population fluctuations influenced by climatic conditions. Molecular analyses for Leishmania parasites and phleboviruses showed no positive results, indicating a low prevalence of pathogens in the sampled populations. Predictive habitat models indicate that environmental factors, particularly temperature and precipitation, play a decisive role in the spread of sandflies. While P. mascittii has the largest ecological range, its vector competence remains uncertain. The results provide important insights into the ecology of sandflies in Slovenia and emphasize the need for continuous surveillance in the context of climate change and emerging vector-borne disease risks.

Apart from being against the law, illegal waste dumping also poses a threat to human health and to the environment. Solid and decomposing waste is an ideal breeding ground for a number of rodents, insects, and other vermin that pose a health risk through the spread of infectious diseases. The main objective of this study was to survey disease vectors and rodents for the presence of sp. from waste sites along the Istrian Peninsula in Slovenia and Croatia. During the survey five sandfly ( , ) and five rodent species were collected ( , , , and ). Sandflies and rodents were screened using a molecular probe to amplify an approximately 120 bp fragment of the kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) minicircle for the detection of sp. parasites. DNA was detected in the spleen of one juvenile black rat ( ). Despite few published records on sp. infection in black rats, the addition of our record highlights the importance of further investigation into the frequency and distribution of such occurrences so that we may better classify the role of rodents as potential reservoirs of leishmaniasis in the Mediterranean basin.

We studied a population of the regionally endangered marsh fritillary butterfl y Euphydryas aurinia inhabiting a system of loosely connected dry calcareous grasslands in sub-Mediterranean Slovenia. Our goal was to set the basis for a long-term monitoring of this butterfl y in four meadows using mark-release-recapture (MRR). We determined its demographic parameters, dispersal, behaviour and utilization of nectar plants in different quality patches. Total population size was estimated to be approximately 347 males (95% confl dence interval: 262-432) and 326 females (95% confl dence interval: 250-402), with an unbiased sex ratio. The average lifespans were 6.3 and 8.6 days, respectively. Daily population sizes followed a parabola with marked protandry. Both sexes were relatively highly mobile with both occasionally moving over half a kilometre. The spatial distribution of animals seemed to be associated with patch size, host plant densities and nectar sources, resulting in much higher population densities in the largest patch. Adult behaviour differed between the sexes, with females resting more and flying less than males. Behaviour also changed during daytime and with the progression of the season. Adults were confl rmed to be opportunistic feeders, since as many as ten nectar sources were detected. We conclude that demographic parameters differ greatly among regions and habitats, thus conservation aims should be planned accordingly. Although the population studied is apparently in good condition, there are threats that may hamper the long-term persistence of the species in this area: succession, intensifl cation of mowing and overgrazing.

Maintenance of traditional cultural landscapes largely depends on traditional agricultural practices, which are nowadays in decline as a result of increasingly intensive and mechanised land use. Losing traditional practices may result in impoverishing of picturesque mosaic landscape and biodiversity. This research focuses on land-use changes in two time periods (2002–2008; 2013–2016) and effects of changes reflecting on populations of critically endangered butterfly. False Ringlet, (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), is a habitat specialist, which in Slovenia inhabits two geographically distinct contrasting habitats – dry meadows in south-western and wetlands in central Slovenia. We compared nine environmental parameters to assess environmental differences, which shape species habitat; seven parameters significantly differ among the four geographical regions and five among the two habitat types. Four parameters significantly differ (i.e. at least in two regions) when tested for homogeneity, while in dry habitat type all (except slope) were significant and none in wet habitat. Changes in land use in two studied periods lit up two processes: transformation of meadows into agricultural land and overgrowing of the meadows, both processes affecting species severely. We believe that maintaining of traditional landscapes in future could serve as a good conservation practice for this endangered species.

The Transphlebotomus subgenus has been drawing attention in last decade due to the uncertain vector capacity and cryptic life history of the group. During a 2015 entomological survey, Phlebotomine flies were collected in western locations of Slovenia, with a total of 22 specimens of the Transphlebotomus subgenus collected. In addition to morphological identifications, we confirmed the presence of Phlebotomus mascittii Grassi, 1908 (Diptera: Psychodidae) by nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. During the study, we found that P. mascittii is most abundant in the area of coastal–karst region of Slovenia, while in rare occasions can also be collected in Northeastern part of the country, near the Austrian border. Vector competence of P. mascitii, like all other member species of the Transphlebotomus subgenus, is unclear, but potential to transmit Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) pathogens or phleboviruses is strongly suspected.

Monitoring amphibians in non-breeding habitats is often constrained by low detectability and potential disturbance to sensitive ecosystems. We tested the effectiveness of artificial shelters - PVC pipes - as a non-invasive method for monitoring the European tree frog (Hyla arborea) outside the breeding season in Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve (Koper, Slovenia). Over three years (2022–2024), we installed 40- and 50-mm diameter shelters at 24 sites and conducted regular inspections. A total of 338 encounters were recorded, with frogs of all sizes using the shelters. Overall shelter occupancy declined across years, likely reflecting a combination of factors including reduced recruitment, vegetation changes, and demographic fluctuations. Preference analysis revealed a statistically significant, consistent trend: narrower (40-mm) shelters were used 1.6 to 1.7 times more often than wider (50-mm) ones, despite no significant difference in the body size of frogs occupying each type. With this approach, we greatly enhanced the detectability of Hyla arborea in the Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve compared to classical monitoring methods such as acoustic surveys or netting. Importantly, a non-invasive approach using artificial shelters minimized the risk of disturbance to breeding and migratory birds, which is essential in areas with high avifaunal conservation value. Our results support the broader use of artificial shelters for monitoring arboreal amphibians in ecologically sensitive areas and suggest future research should explore finer-scale shelter design to improve detection and ecological interpretation across life stages.

The Slovenian False Ringlet Coenonympha oedippus populations are under serious threat, as in the last two decades have witnessed a sharp decline in population distribution and size due to destruction, fragmentation and/or habitat quality degradation through intensive agriculture, abandonment of use and urbanization. We investigated the genetic diversity and structure of C. oedippus from the entire range of the species in Slovenia. Our results showed that the genetic variation in the Slovenian C. oedippus populations agrees with the geographical structure and the ecotypes previously determined by morphological and ecological data. We confirmed the existence of four genetically divergent and spatially non-overlapping geographical groups (Istria, Karst, Gorica, Ljubljansko barje) and two ecotypes (\"wet\" and \"dry\"). Despite small sample sizes due to critically threatened species, the results indicated significant nuclear and mitochondrial genetic diversity within the spatial groups. By gaining new insights into the evolutionary history of the C. oedippus population, we have recommended to consider the Slovenian population as one Evolutionary Significant Unit, and four spatial populations as Management Units for conservation purposes.

Monitoring amphibians in non-breeding habitats is constrained by low detectability and potential disturbance to sensitive ecosystems. We tested the effectiveness of artificial shelters - PVC pipes - as a non-invasive method for monitoring the European tree frog (Hyla arborea) outside the breeding season in Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve (Koper, Slovenia). Over three years (2022–2024), we installed 40- and 50-mm diameter shelter pipes at 24 sites and conducted regular inspections. A total of 338 encounters of the focal species were recorded, with frogs of all sizes using the shelters. Overall shelter occupancy declined across years, possibly reflecting a combination of factors including reduced recruitment, vegetation changes, demographic fluctuations, and weather conditions. A statistically significant trend was observed, with narrower (40-mm) shelter pipes having 1.6 to 1.7 times more captures than wider (50-mm) ones, despite no significant difference in the body size of frogs occupying each type. By using PVC artificial shelters, we greatly enhanced the detectability of H. arborea in the Škocjanski zatok Nature Reserve compared to classical monitoring methods such as acoustic surveys or dip-netting. Importantly, a non-invasive approach using artificial shelters minimized the risk of disturbance to breeding and migratory birds, which is essential in areas with high avifaunal conservation value. Our results support the broader use of artificial shelters for monitoring arboreal amphibians in ecologically sensitive areas and suggest future research should explore finer-scale shelter design to improve detection and ecological interpretation across life stages.