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This research aims to study the variation in phytosociology and plant diversity of large cardamom-based traditional agroforestry systems along an altitudinal gradient (700–2000 m) in the Darjeeling Himalayas. We analyzed the changes in phytosociology and plant diversity by adopting stratified random nested quadrate sampling method. The agroforestry managers were interviewed for their perception of ecosystem service following Millennium Ecosystem Assessment guidelines. The present study showed altitudinal location significantly influences plant diversity. Overall, 130 plant species were documented, of which 37 were trees, 25 shrubs, 46 herbs, 8 ferns, 11 climbers and 3 orchids. The low-, mid- and high-altitude classes were documented with 76, 60 and 52 plant species, respectively. Overall, the study system was highly heterogeneous and diverse with a higher Shannon and Wiener diversity index of 4.09 which decreased progressively with increasing altitude as evidenced from significant negative relationship of altitude with diversity (r =− 0.582**), species richness (r =− 0.648**) and plant population (r =− 0.587**). Of the total listed plant species, about 68% were data deficit, 29% were least concerned; two species (Cryptomeria japonica and Cupressus cashmeriana) were near threatened, and one species (Brugmansia suaveolens) was extinct in the wild. This indicates that the study system plays a vital role in harbouring and conserving regional plant diversity. The plant species documented were also classified based on their ecosystem services with 120, 47, 34 and 33 species providing provisional, cultural, regulatory and supporting services, respectively.

We used a multidisciplinary approach to assess the role of homegardens (HGs) in ten Indigenous Garo ( A’chik ) communities in the South Garo district in Meghalaya, Northeast India, that we selected purposively because of their remoteness, low lying area, and the communities’ dependence on HGs for their livelihoods. A reconnaissance survey was carried out to understand the area and communicate with the “Nokmas” (village headmen) and VEC (Village Employment Council) for their permission. The final survey was carried out randomly in villages with 10 HGs each from one village of two blocks; 100 (N) respondents were interviewed. Our results indicate that the average size of the HGs is 0.27 ha, with 214 species represented by 78 families and 174 genera with 13 utilization categories. Plant species richness ranged from 07 to 64 individuals with an average assemblage of 16.60 (± 8.66). We recorded five vertical strata: the ground stratum has the highest (82) number of species comprising herbs, vines, and climbers; the second stratum is mainly shrubs (29 species); the third stratum (43 species); and the fourth and fifth strata are predominantly trees. Notably, 78% of HGs had an animal component. From a conservation perspective, HGs include one critically endangered, two endangered, and one vulnerable species. We estimated frequency (ranging between 1 and 75%), density (0.01–103.6), species abundance (1.0-138.13%), and Importance value index IVI (0.19–87.28). The species diversity index (Menhinick’s index), the concentration of dominance (Simpson’s index), the Shannon-Weaver diversity index, and the species evenness of the HGs were 1.72, 0.45, 2.00, and 0.21, respectively. Significant correlations were observed among HGs age, size, and species richness. Our results serve as a valuable tool for preserving the genetic resources of threatened taxa and promoting the economic well-being of the A’chik community.