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This review presents an updated scenario of findings and evolutions of encapsulation of bioactive compounds for food and agricultural applications. Many polymers have been reported as encapsulated agents, such as sodium alginate, gum Arabic, chitosan, cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose, pectin, Shellac, xanthan gum, zein, pullulan, maltodextrin, whey protein, galactomannan, modified starch, polycaprolactone, and sodium caseinate. The main encapsulation methods investigated in the study include both physical and chemical ones, such as freeze-drying, spray-drying, extrusion, coacervation, complexation, and supercritical anti-solvent drying. Consequently, in the food area, bioactive peptides, vitamins, essential oils, caffeine, plant extracts, fatty acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and terpenes are the main compounds encapsulated. In the agricultural area, essential oils, lipids, phytotoxins, medicines, vaccines, hemoglobin, and microbial metabolites are the main compounds encapsulated. Most scientific investigations have one or more objectives, such as to improve the stability of formulated systems, increase the release time, retain and protect active properties, reduce lipid oxidation, maintain organoleptic properties, and present bioactivities even in extreme thermal, radiation, and pH conditions. Considering the increasing worldwide interest for biomolecules in modern and sustainable agriculture, encapsulation can be efficient for the formulation of biofungicides, biopesticides, bioherbicides, and biofertilizers. With this review, it is inferred that the current scenario indicates evolutions in the production methods by increasing the scales and the techno-economic feasibilities. The Technology Readiness Level (TRL) for most of the encapsulation methods is going beyond TRL 6, in which the knowledge gathered allows for having a functional prototype or a representative model of the encapsulation technologies presented in this review.

Senna obtusifolia presents structures favorable to the effects of the dormancy phenomenon, presenting low germination rates for a certain period. This panorama can be solved by the dormancy-breaking process, which is caused by the exposure of the seed to adverse conditions that stimulate the germination process. Accordingly, this study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of different methods to overcome dormancy in Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby seeds. A completely randomized design (CRD) was the experimental design adopted, with four treatments and eight replications of 25 seeds. The treatments consisted of mechanical scarification, water imbibition, and immersion in hot water. In this study, a statistically significant difference was seen between treatments for all parameters, where the treatment under mechanical scarification was the most effective for promoting germination (99 ± 1.51% of germinated seeds). Furthermore, the treatment presented the most promising results for average shoot length (ASL) (43.95 ± 8.66 mm), root length (ARL) (28.09 ± 5.27 mm), total fresh mass (MF) (1.97 ± 0.10 g), and total dry mass (MS) (0.37 ± 0.03 g). The mechanical scarification of seeds favored germination and this treatment was the most efficient for the process of overcoming the dormancy of S. obtusifolia seeds.

Senna obtusifolia apresenta estruturas favoráveis aos efeitos do fenômeno de dormência, apresentando baixas taxas de germinação por um determinado período. Este panorama pode ser contornado pelo processo de quebra de dormência, causado pela exposição da semente a condições adversas que estimulem o processo de germinação. Adequadamente, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência de diferentes métodos para superação de dormência em sementes de Senna obtusifolia (L.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby. O delineamento experimental adotado foi o delineamento inteiramente casualizado (DIC), com quatro tratamentos e oito repetições de 25 sementes. Os tratamentos foram compostos por: escarificação mecânica, embebição em água e imersão em água quente. Neste estudo, observou-se, estatisticamente, diferença entre os tratamentos para todos os parâmetros avaliados, onde o tratamento sob escarificação mecânica foi o mais eficaz para promoção da germinação (99 ±1.51% de sementes germinadas). Ainda, o tratamento apresentou os resultados mais promissores para comprimento médio da parte aérea (CPA) (43.95 ± 8.66 mm) e radicular (CRP) (28.09 ± 5.27 mm), massa fresca total (MF) (1.97 ± 0.10 g) e massa seca total (MS) (0.37 ± 0.03 g). Apropriadamente, concluiu-se que a escarificação mecânica das sementes favoreceu a germinação e o tratamento foi o mais eficiente para o processo de superação de dormência de sementes de S. obtusifolia.

Subcritical water hydrolysis was used for the pre-treatment of residues generated in olive groves. Fermentable sugars were produced from the lignocellulosic material found in olive leaves and stems. Firstly, moisture, ash, particle average diameter, and total extracts were measured. Afterward, subcritical water hydrolysis was carried out at 20 MPa in a 50 mL reactor. The influences of two temperatures (180 and 220 °C) and two water flow rates (10 and 20 mL min-1) on the sugars yields were evaluated. The concentration of sugars was 31.3 g L-1 at 180 °C and 10 mL min-1 in a reaction for 3 min, of which glucose was the major sugar (27.64 g L-1). Statistical analysis was performed using Sisvar® 5.6 software and the averages were compared through Tukey’s test, considering a significance level of 95% (p<0.05). For the treatments evaluated in this work, only xylose was statistically different in the treatments with different water flow rates. The highest values of xylose were obtained with 10 mL min-1, which were 1.82 g L-1 (180 °C) and 2.18 g L-1 (220 °C). The total inhibitors were high at 220 °C for all water flow rates, with a significant difference from the averages obtained at 180 °C.