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In August 1676 Nathaniel Bacon brought his campaign to \"ruin and extirpate all Indians in general\" to the Green Dragon Swamp on the upper Pamunkey River. While there, he attacked and massacred nearly fifty Pamunkey Indians, who had been at peace with the government of Virginia for thirty years. Having once formed the backbone of the mighty Algonquian-speaking Powhatan Chiefdom, the Pamunkeys now numbered fewer than two hundred warriors and had lived in a state of dependence and subjection to the Virginia government since the end of the Anglo-Powhatan Wars in 1646. From the time of her accession to the position of Pamunkey \"weroansqua\" in 1656, the Pamunkey leader, Cockacoeske, had spent twenty years of her life navigating the tangle of policies, proclamations, customs, and expectations that constituted Virginia's complex political and legal system to achieve her ends. Now in the space of a few short weeks, an army made up of nearly six hundred western Virginians who blamed her people for the attacks of Iroquoian Indian groups from Maryland had nearly destroyed all of her progress. Ironically, of the principal actors involved in Bacon's Rebellion, Cockacoeske exerted the most lasting impact on Virginia's future. The Queen of Pamunkey managed to survive the rebellion and signed the 1677 Treaty of Middle Plantation, which effectively ended hostilities between the Virginians and area Indian groups. Cockacoeske represents one in a long line of Indians in general and Virginian Algonquians in particular who \"sought cooperation rather than conflict\" and \"coexistence on shared regional patches of ground rather than arms-length contact across distant frontiers\" who but sought to do so on Native terms. Cockacoeske's importance cannot be grasped simply by examining her life and career in isolation. Instead, one must begin long before her birth with the forging of the paramount chiefdom led by her kinsman Powhatan in the late sixteenth century. The generations of external and internal strife between the creation of the Powhatan Chiefdom and Cockacoeske's rise to power provide considerable clues as to the nature of Powhatan leadership. Additionally, the particular combination of gender and spirituality that underlay Powhatan leadership offers a very powerful explanation for why it was that only a woman such as Cockacoeske could fill the leadership void created by the chiefdom's defeat in 1646. In short, the very spiritual weaknesses endured by men during the latter half of the seventeenth century brought opportunities for leadership to Powhatan women. (Contains 51 notes.)

Schmidt reviews Alternative Contact: Indigeneity, Globalism, and American Studies edited by Paul Lai and Lindsey Claire Smith.

During the spring and summer of 1676, an army made up of servants, slaves, and poor Virginians attempted, according to their leader Nathaniel Bacon to, \"ruine and extirpate all Indians in Generall.\" According to one account, Bacon indiscriminately \"fell upon the Indians and killed some of them who were our best Friends.\" Nevertheless, Bacon and his followers encountered what might seem to many an unexpected adversary in their attempt to eradicate the Native American population of Virginia. The aristocratic leaders of the colony led by the Royal Governor, Sir William Berkeley branded Bacon and his followers as rebels, and attempted to apprehend him before he could achieve his genocidal aims. The ensuing four months of warfare between loyalist and rebel Virginians known as Bacon's Rebellion remained a particularly terrifying and potent memory for Virginians into the era of the American Revolution.1 Ninety-eight years after this violent class conflict, western Virginians once again armed themselves for war against the colony's Indigenous people. This time however, Lord Dunmore, the last Royal Governor of Virginia not only allowed westerners to violently wrest land from native people, but also actively encouraged it. Obviously, something had changed since Bacon's Rebellion. The right of Virginians of all classes to appropriate Indian land via the use of force seemed unquestioned by the time of Lord Dunmore's War in 1774. 2 The question of what brought about this change in Virginia constitutes the central historical problem this dissertation proposes to solve. I argue that what changed in Virginian attitudes regarding who could and could not employ violence against Native Americans rests not in the period between Bacon's Rebellion and Lord Dunmore's War, but rather in the seventeenth century. Specifically, Bacon's Rebellion represents the culmination of a process by which plebeian and middling Virginians successfully claimed a freeborn right to displace Native Americans with violence if necessary. Additionally, this process began not in Virginia, but in England. Therefore, I propose to trace the development of this process from its earliest roots in seventeenth century altercations over customary rights in England, to its culmination in Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. 1 Nathaniel Bacon, \"Manifesto Concerning the Present Troubles in Virginia,\" in The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography , Vol. I (1894), pp. 55-58; Wilcomb E. Washburn, The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (Chapel Hill, NC and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), pp. 43; \"Commissioners' Narrative,\" in Narratives of the Insurrections, 1675-1690 ed. Charles McLean Andrews (New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1915), pp. 112. 2Ruben Gold Thwaites and Louise Phelps Kellogg, A Documentary History of Dunmore's War, 1774 (Madison, WI: Wisconsin State Historical Society, 1905).ix-xxviii.

Schmidt reviews William R. Nester's book \"Haughty Conquerors: Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763.\"

Response modes computed via linear resolvent analysis of a turbulent mean-flow field have been shown to qualitatively capture characteristics of the observed turbulent coherent structures in both wall-bounded and free shear flows. To make such resolvent models predictive, the nonlinear forcing term must be closed. Strategies to do so include imposing self-consistent sets of triadic interactions, proposing various source models or through turbulence modelling. For the latter, several investigators have proposed using the mean-field eddy viscosity acting linearly on the fluctuation field. In this study, a data-driven approach is taken to quantitatively improve linear resolvent models by deducing an optimal eddy-viscosity field that maximizes the projection of the dominant resolvent mode to the energy-optimal coherent structure educed using spectral proper orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) of data from high-fidelity simulations. We use large-eddy simulation databases for round isothermal jets at subsonic, transonic and supersonic conditions and show that the optimal eddy viscosity substantially improves the agreement between resolvent and SPOD modes, reaching over 90 % agreement at those frequencies where the jet exhibits a low-rank response. We then consider a fixed model for the eddy viscosity and show that with the calibration of a single constant, the results are generally close to the optimal one. In particular, the use of a standard Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes eddy-viscosity resolvent model, with a single coefficient, provides substantial agreement between SPOD and resolvent modes for three turbulent jets and across the most energetic wavenumbers and frequencies.

Circulating influenza viruses evade neutralization in their human hosts by acquiring escape mutations at epitopes of prevalent antibodies. A goal for next-generation influenza vaccines is to reduce escape likelihood by selectively eliciting antibodies recognizing conserved surfaces on the viral hemagglutinin (HA). The receptor-binding site (RBS) on the HA “head” and a region near the fusion peptide on the HA “stem” are two such sites. We describe here a human antibody clonal lineage, designated CL6649, members of which bind a third conserved site (“lateral patch”) on the side of the H1-subtype, HA head. A crystal structure of HA with bound Fab6649 shows the conserved antibody footprint. The site was invariant in isolates from 1977 (seasonal) to 2012 (pdm2009); antibodies in CL6649 recognize HAs from the entire period. In 2013, human H1 viruses acquired mutations in this epitope that were retained in subsequent seasons, prompting modification of the H1 vaccine component in 2017. The mutations inhibit Fab6649 binding. We infer from the rapid spread of these mutations in circulating H1 influenza viruses that the previously subdominant, conserved lateral patch had become immunodominant for individuals with B-cell memory imprinted by earlier H1 exposure. We suggest that introduction of the pdm2009 H1 virus, to which most of the broadly prevalent, neutralizing antibodies did not bind, conferred a selective advantage in the immune systems of infected hosts to recall of memory B cells that recognized the lateral patch, the principal exposed epitope that did not change when pdm2009 displaced previous seasonal H1 viruses.

Three amplification mechanisms present in turbulent jets, namely lift-up, Kelvin–Helmholtz and Orr, are characterized via global resolvent analysis and spectral proper orthogonal decomposition (SPOD) over a range of Mach numbers. The lift-up mechanism was recently identified in turbulent jets via local analysis by Nogueira et al.  ( J. Fluid Mech. , vol. 873, 2019, pp. 211–237) at low Strouhal number ($St$) and non-zero azimuthal wavenumbers ($m$). In these limits, a global SPOD analysis of data from high-fidelity simulations reveals streamwise vortices and streaks similar to those found in turbulent wall-bounded flows. These structures are in qualitative agreement with the global resolvent analysis, which shows that they are a response to upstream forcing of streamwise vorticity near the nozzle exit. Analysis of mode shapes, component-wise amplitudes and sensitivity analysis distinguishes the three mechanisms and the regions of frequency–wavenumber space where each dominates, finding lift-up to be dominant as$St/m\\rightarrow 0$. Finally, SPOD and resolvent analyses of localized regions show that the lift-up mechanism is present throughout the jet, with a dominant azimuthal wavenumber inversely proportional to streamwise distance from the nozzle, with streaks of azimuthal wavenumber exceeding five near the nozzle, and wavenumbers one and two most energetic far downstream of the potential core.