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The poultry industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is faced with feed insecurity, associated with high cost of feeds, and feed safety, associated with locally produced feeds often contaminated with mycotoxins. Mycotoxins, including aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes, and zearalenone (ZEN), are common contaminants of poultry feeds and feed ingredients from SSA. These mycotoxins cause deleterious effects on the health and productivity of chickens and can also be present in poultry food products, thereby posing a health hazard to human consumers of these products. This review summarizes studies of major mycotoxins in poultry feeds, feed ingredients, and poultry food products from SSA as well as aflatoxicosis outbreaks. Additionally reviewed are the worldwide regulation of mycotoxins in poultry feeds, the impact of major mycotoxins in the production of chickens, and the postharvest use of mycotoxin detoxifiers. In most studies, AFs are most commonly quantified, and levels above the European Union regulatory limits of 20 μg/kg are reported. Trichothecenes, FBs, ZEN, and OTA are also reported but are less frequently analyzed. Co-occurrences of mycotoxins, especially AFs and FBs, are reported in some studies. The effects of AFs on chickens’ health and productivity, carryover to their products, as well as use of mycotoxin binders are reported in few studies conducted in SSA. More research should therefore be conducted in SSA to evaluate occurrences, toxicological effects, and mitigation strategies to prevent the toxic effects of mycotoxins.

While studies on the sublethal effects of chemical residues in beeswax on adult honey bees are increasing, the study protocols assessing the impacts on honey bee brood in realistic conditions still need to be investigated. Moreover, little is known about the residue’s effect on gene expression in honey bee brood. This study reports the effects of chlorpyriphos-ethyl, acrinathrin and stearin worker pupae exposure through contaminated or adulterated beeswax on the gene expression of some key health indicators, using a novel in vivo realistic model. Larvae were reared in acrinathrin (12.5, 25, 10 and 100 ppb) and chlorpyriphos-ethyl (5, 10, 500 and 5000 ppb) contaminated or stearin adulterated beeswax (3, 4, 5, 6 and 9%) in newly formed colonies to reduce the influence of external factors. On day 11, mortality rates were assessed. Honey bee pupae were extracted from the comb after 19 days of rearing and were analysed for the gene expression profile of four genes involved in the immune response to pathogens and environmental stress factors ( Imd , dorsal , domeless and defensin ), and two genes involved in detoxifications mechanisms (CYP6AS14 and CYP9Q3). We found no linear relation between the increase in the pesticide concentrations and the brood mortality rates, unlike stearin where an increase in stearin percentage led to an exponential increase in brood mortality. The immune system of pupae raised in acrinathrin contaminated wax was triggered and the expression of CYP6AS14 was significantly upregulated (exposure to 12.5 and 25 ppb). Almost all expression levels of the tested immune and detoxification genes were down-regulated when pupae were exposed to chlorpyrifos-contaminated wax. The exposure to stearin triggered the immune system and detoxification system of the pupae. The identification of substance-specific response factors might ultimately serve to identify molecules that are safer for bees and the ecosystem’s health.

Mycotoxins are common in grains in sub-Saharan Africa and negatively impact human and animal health and production. This study assessed occurrences of mycotoxins, some plant, and bacterial metabolites in 16 dairy and 27 poultry feeds, and 24 feed ingredients from Machakos town, Kenya, in February and August 2019. We analyzed the samples using a validated multi-toxin liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method. A total of 153 mycotoxins, plant, and bacterial toxins, were detected in the samples. All the samples were co-contaminated with 21 to 116 different mycotoxins and/or metabolites. The commonly occurring and EU regulated mycotoxins reported were; aflatoxins (AFs) (70%; range 0.2–318.5 μg/kg), deoxynivalenol (82%; range 22.2–1037 μg/kg), ergot alkaloids (70%; range 0.4–285.7 μg/kg), fumonisins (90%; range 32.4–14,346 μg/kg), HT-2 toxin (3%; range 11.9–13.8 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (24%; range 1.1–24.3 μg/kg), T-2 toxin (4%; range 2.7–5.2 μg/kg) and zearalenone (94%; range 0.3–910.4 μg/kg). Other unregulated emerging mycotoxins and metabolites including Alternaria toxins, Aspergillus toxins, bacterial metabolites, cytochalasins, depsipeptides, Fusarium metabolites, metabolites from other fungi, Penicillium toxins, phytoestrogens, plant metabolites, and unspecific metabolites were also detected at varying levels. Except for total AFs, where the average contamination level was above the EU regulatory limit, all the other mycotoxins detected had average contamination levels below the limits. Ninety-six percent of all the samples were contaminated with more than one of the EU regulated mycotoxins. These co-occurrences may cause synergistic and additive health effects thereby hindering the growth of the Kenyan livestock sector.

This review aims to give an insight into the main hazards currently found in smoked meat and fish products. Literature research was carried out on international databases such as Access to Global Online Research in Agriculture (AGORA) database, Science direct, and Google scholar to collect and select 92 relevant publications included in this review. The smoking process was described and five hazards mostly found in smoked fish and meat were presented. The heat‐induced compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic amines, and nitrosamines were found in smoked fish and meat. Other hazards such as biogenic amines and heavy metals were also present in smoked fish and meat. The levels of these hazards reported from the literature exceeded the maximal limits of European Union. A brief description of risk assessment methodology applicable to such toxic compounds and risk assessment examples was also presented in this review. As most of the hazards reported in this review are toxic and even carcinogenic to humans, actions should be addressed to reduce their presence in food to protect consumer health and to prevent public health issue. ‐Main hazards reported in smoked meat and fish are toxic and carcinogenic to humans ‐Levels of chemical hazards reported from literature exceeded the maximal limits of European Union ‐Consumption of smoked meat and fish presents risk for consumers ‘health

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) in fish samples have been investigated in many previous studies. However, the available data regarding this issue in low- and middle-income countries are very scarce, and no study has been performed in Algeria yet. Therefore, this work aimed to determine the levels of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs in swordfish ( Xiphias gladius ) caught in three regions of the Algerian coasts, and the health risk associated with these contaminants was assessed. The PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs were analyzed in 37 fish samples from Algiers, Bejaia, and Oran using the DR-CALUX bioassay method. The overall mean (and standard deviation) of PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs concentrations in swordfish from Algiers, Bejaia, and Oran were 0.19 (0.13), 0.27 (0.24), and 0.08 (0.05) pg TEQ g −1 wet weight (ww), respectively, which were lower than the national and European regulatory limits. Daily and weekly intake values of PCDD/F and DL-PCB were higher for the samples from Bejaia (0.45 and 3.15 pg TEQ kg −1 body weight (bw) per day and week, respectively) and for the samples from Algiers (0.31 and 2.17 pg TEQ kg −1 bw per day and week, respectively), which were higher than the tolerable weekly intake of 2 pg TEQ kg −1 bw per week recently established by the European Food Safety Authority. Overall, our findings indicate that swordfish consumption poses a risk to the Algerian consumer.

Escherichia coli K1 is a leading cause of neonatal meningitis. The asymptomatic carriage of these strains in the maternal intestinal microbiota constitutes a risk of vertical transmission to the infant at birth. The aim of this work was to evaluate the efficacy of phage therapy against E. coli K1 in an intestinal environment and its impact on the intestinal microbiota. For this purpose, three independent experiments were conducted on the SHIME® system, the first one with only the phage vB_EcoP_K1_ULINTec4, the second experiment with only E. coli K1 and the last experiment with both E. coli K1 and the phage. Microbiota monitoring was performed using metagenetics, qPCR, SCFA analysis and the induction of AhR. The results showed that phage vB_EcoP_K1_ULINTec4, inoculated alone, was progressively cleared by the system and replicates in the presence of its host. E. coli K1 persisted in the microbiota but decreased in the presence of the phage. The impact on the microbiota was revealed to be donor dependent, and the bacterial populations were not dramatically affected by vB_K1_ULINTec4, either alone or with its host. In conclusion, these experiments showed that the phage was able to infect the E. coli K1 in the system but did not completely eliminate the bacterial load.

Vietnam is an important producer of aquaculture products, and aquatic products are essential to the Vietnamese diet. However, Vietnam also has very little enforced regulation pertaining to antibiotic usage in domestic aquaculture, which raises concerns for antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria. In this study, analysis was conducted on the presence of antibiotic residues in domestically sold fish and shrimp raised in freshwater farms in Vietnam, and an assessment of farmers’ knowledge of proper antibiotics usage was performed. The results indicated that a quarter of tested aquaculture products were antibiotic screening test positive, and there is a general lack of knowledge about the purpose and proper usage of antibiotics by aquaculture producers. Farmers’ decision-making processes about antimicrobial use are influenced by biased sources of information, such as drug manufacturers and sellers, and by financial incentives.

This work proposes an insight into the mycotoxins detected in wheat from the 2023 and 2024 harvests in Belgium and highlights the link between agronomic conditions and mycotoxin contamination. The study utilized samples from a Belgian trial network, covering nine locations in 2023 and eight in 2024, ensuring diverse pedoclimatic contexts and including 11 different varieties. Sowing and harvest dates, previous crops and meteorological data were collected for these locations. A validated UPLC-MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method able to detect 20 mycotoxins, regulated or not, was used. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and enniatins B and B1 were detected in the 2023 and 2024 samples. Enniatin A1 was only detected in the 2024 samples. Mycotoxin contamination was higher in 2024 compared to 2023, in terms of both the number of contaminated samples and the contamination levels. Enniatins B and B1, non-regulated mycotoxins, were widely detected in the 2024 wheat samples, with enniatin B detected in 68 out 88 samples ranging from 12 to 488 µg/kg. Differences between the wheat varieties were observed, with some varieties showing significantly higher contamination. Additionally, geographic location appeared to influence contamination levels, which could be related to previous crops or meteorological events. In conclusion, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of mycotoxin co-contamination in wheat samples from diverse pedoclimatic contexts in Belgium based over 2 years. It shows the importance of weather conditions on mycotoxin contamination. It also emphasizes the importance of variety selection to manage mycotoxin contamination.

This study assessed mycotoxin contamination in roasted peanut snacks and kluiklui (fried pressed peanut cake), and consumer exposure in southern Benin. Roasted peanut snacks and kluiklui were sampled from markets across six municipalities, and their production follow-up was conducted on two sites using different processing methods. Mycotoxins were quantified using UPLC-MS/MS, while fungal species were identified via culture-based methods. Exposure to aflatoxin B1, total aflatoxins and ochratoxin A was estimated. Aflatoxin B1 predominated, reaching 169 µg/kg in roasted peanut snacks and 2144.64 µg/kg in marketed kluiklui. In contrast, just-produced kluiklui contained much lower levels (11.73–37.78 µg/kg). Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger predominated in kluiklui from the first processing site, while Aspergillus chevalieri dominated in kluiklui from the second processing site. The grinding step (using public grinder) was identified as the main contamination point. The significative higher mycotoxin levels in kluiklui sampled on markets compared to just-produced kluiklui are probably due to poor storage conditions. Dietary exposure estimates revealed that margins of exposure for aflatoxins were far below the safety threshold of 10,000, and liver cancer risk estimates were particularly high for kluiklui consumers. Kluiklui consumption poses a significant health risk in Benin. Improved hygiene in public grinders and better storage practices are urgently needed to reduce contamination and protect consumers’ health.

In Northern Benin, insecticides are used for cotton production. These insecticides can be easily transferred to water ponds close to cotton fields. To monitor insecticides levels in water, sediments and fish samples from water ponds, a GC–MS analytical method was developed to detect residues of endosulfan, DDT and its parent compounds, isomers of HCH, pyrethroids and chlorpyrifos. In addition, the influence of storage conditions of water sample on pesticides determination performance has been studied. The limits of quantification were between 0.16 and 0.32 µg/L in water, 0.5 and 1 μg/kg in sediment and 1 and 2 μg/kg in fish. Twenty samples of water, twenty of sediments and forty of fish were taken in four different water reservoirs at five different times. Alpha-endosulfan, lambda-cyhalothrin and permethrin were identified in sediment while p,p′-DDE, α- and β-HCH, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin and permethrin were detected in fish. Only organochlorines were determined in water because of the lack of recovery of pyrethroids from water stored in glass. Concentrations of insecticide residues in sediment for all water ponds ranged from non-detected to 101 µg/kg and from non-detected to 36 µg/kg in fish. Preliminary risk assessment for consumers of the North of Benin showed that the Estimated Daily Intakes were lower than the Acceptable Daily Intakes and Acute Reference Doses for all consumers. However, as one fish can be contaminated by five pesticide residues at the same time, it is not possible to exclude a risk for the consumer due to his exposure to mixtures of pesticides.