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This study examined the comparability of onsite and offsite methods for measuring norms for trail impacts using photo/survey techniques. A total of 449 subjects participated in a study of Mudeung-Mountain Provincial Park, Gwang-Ju, Korea. For the overall photo evaluation method (OPEM), respondents rated the acceptability of bare soil area for each of a series of photographs. For the specific photo evaluation method (SPEM), respondents selected a photograph that illustrated the largest acceptable proportion of bare soil area from a series of 10 photographs. Overall, there were no substantial differences in maximum acceptable impacts between onsite (onsite-I visitor group surveyed at the actual trail points and onsite-II departing visitor group surveyed at the exit area) and offsite (students surveyed in a laboratory setting) groups for the two norm measurement alternatives (OPEM and SPEM). Subjects' difficulty ratings were low for both methods, and there were no substantial differences in norms between individuals with high and low levels of experience at the park. The offsite method appears to be substitutable for onsite methods in this particular study area, which is a frontcountry setting with a relatively simple range of recreation opportunities. Implications and further studies are discussed.

This article examines potential effects of two physical developments (presence or absence of an aerial tramway, a road vs. a trail) and one social variable (increasing encounters with other people) on individuals’ perceptions of settings (i.e., perceived settings), crowding, and acceptance of encounters (i.e., norms) in Mudeungsan Provincial Park in South Korea, where there have been proposals for a new aerial tramway. Data were obtained from 241 students at Chonnam National University, almost all of whom had previously visited this park (e.g., 66 % visited at least one of the two study locations in this park, 55 % visited this park in the past 12 months). Simulated photographs showed encounter levels (1 or 15 hikers), the presence or absence of a tramway, and a road versus a trail. Respondents encountering low numbers of other people felt less crowded, considered these use levels to be more acceptable, and perceived the area as more pristine and less developed. Locations containing an aerial tramway were perceived as more developed and less natural, and higher encounter levels were considered to be more acceptable at these locations. Whether settings contained a road or a trail did not influence perceived settings, crowding, or norms. Implications of these findings for future research and management of parks and related outdoor settings are discussed.

Soundscapes in recreation settings are becoming an important issue, but there are few studies of the effects of sounds on recreation experiences, especially crowding perceptions and encounter norms. This study compared effects of six types of sounds (an airplane, a truck engine, children playing, birds, water, and a control) on perceived crowding (PC) and encounter norms for hikers. Data were collected from 47 college students through lab experiments using simulated images, with moving hikers inserted in the original photo taken in the Jungmeori area of Mudeungsan Provincial Park in Korea. Overall, the motor-made sounds of the airplane and truck engine increased PC and decreased acceptability ratings, and the natural sounds of birds and water decreased PC and increased acceptability ratings. Ratings of the sound of children playing were similar to those in the control (i.e., no sound). In addition, as numbers of hikers increased, the overall effects of sounds decreased, and there were few significant differences in PC or acceptability ratings at the highest encounter levels. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.

People receive information about visiting places from a variety of sources, and it is important to understand how information affects recreation experiences. This study examines how different information treatments describing a recreation place influence perceived crowding and encounter norms. The study location was the Jungmoeri area of Mudeungsan Provincial Park (MPP) in Korea. Data were collected from 50 college students utilizing a series of simulated moving pictures in a laboratory setting. Respondents were given information describing three different types of conditions and experiences (nature preserve, transition/buffer, and developed area), plus a no information control. Results showed that information influenced perceived crowding and encounter norms. For the range of encounter numbers depicted in the photos, the nature preserve treatment produced higher crowding ratings and lower tolerances for encounters, the developed area treatment produced lower crowding ratings and higher tolerances, and the transition/buffer and the control were in between. Information treatments also influence the perceived importance of encounter numbers, and importance was highest for the nature preserve. Management implications are discussed.

In a world where populations and resource demands continue to grow, there is a long history of concern about the capacity of the environment to support human uses, including timber, rangelands, fish and wildlife, and recreation. In the context of recreation, work on visitor capacities has evolved considerably since the late 1960s as a result of environmental planning, court proceedings, recreation management practice, and recreation research. This paper documents the state-of-knowledge understanding of capacity among our group of long-term professionals, who represent a wide range of experience and perspectives. The paper defines capacity as the amount and type of use that is compatible with the management prescription for an area, and elaborates on the elements of that definition. The main body of the paper describes 34 agreements about the larger planning context, the definition of capacity, benefits of capacity, indicators and standards, and the roles of these concepts in resource planning and management. The final section identifies issues needing resolution, including four differences we resolved and five differences that remain, and also includes our individual perspectives on these issues. This paper is not the definitive statement, on visitor capacity, and we trust others will contribute to this on-going dialogue as agencies, the courts, academics, and resource professionals work to resolve capacity issues. We hope our work adds clarity, advances understanding, helps guide application of efforts designed to address capacity, and encourages others to contribute their ideas.

Norm stability is an important issue to consider in using the normative approach as a component of resource management decision making. This study examines three major questions related to norm stability: (1) Do norms change over time? (2) Do existing conditions affect norms? (3) Do background characteristics and visitation patterns affect norms? Data used in this study were collected at a campground in the Jirisan National Park (JNP) of Korea in 1993, 1994, and 2003. A total of 396 subjects were used for the study (120 for 1993, 106 for 1994, and 170 for 2003). Changes in the standards for “quiet time” and “seeing others littering” were statistically significant, but there was no change in the standard for “number of other tents.” There was little change in norm agreement or norm prevalence. Existing conditions were strongly correlated with standards for number of other tents but results were mixed for the other two indicators. Users' demographic characteristics and visitation patterns were not generally related to norms. Findings of the study are discussed.

Evaluative information about appropriate use conditions is a necessary component of managing impacts in recreation settings. Social norm theory, which suggests there may be group agreement about appropriate conditions, can be applied to help establish standards. Information was collected regarding boaters' standards for a variety of social and ecological impacts on the Deschutes River in Oregon. Results suggest norms can be identified and appear to conform to three different types. A \"no tolerance\" norm exists when most users agree that any level of impact is unacceptable, a \"single tolerance\" norm exists when users show similar agreement at impact levels greater than zero, and a \"multiple tolerance\" norm exists when two or more groups of users have different standards for acceptable impact levels. These norm types help in understanding differences in acceptable impact levels and group agreement. Implications are discussed for establishing management standards from normative information.

Peak season visitors to Yosemite Valley knows first hand that use levels can affect the quality of theft experiences in the park. The sheer volumes of vehicles and people sometimes produce long lines at entrance gates, traffic jams at intersections, full parking lots, and congested trails or viewpoints. These problems have been challenging the park's infrastructure and operational staff for decades, but more frequently in recent years. Whittaker et al review the process used to develop capacities, and describes how Yosemite's Integrated Transportation and Capacity Assessment information helped develop plan alternatives that represent tradeoffs between transportation infrastructure, visitor numbers, and the conditions that affect visitor experiences.

This study explored the extent of displacement and the types of displacement behaviors used in response to crowding at a popular reservoir in Oregon. Data collected through a mail-back survey of recreational users contacted at the target site (n = 1,069) demonstrated that about half altered their behavior in some way because of crowding. Interviews with users (n = 168) at three other nearby \"alternative\" sites indicated that about half of those who had been to the target site (Lake Billy Chinook) go there less than in the past, while about 20-30% reduced their use because of adverse conditions encountered at Lake Billy Chinook, primarily crowding or undesirable management policies. Using a typology adopted from the substitution literature, data showed that changing the timing of visits (temporal displacement) was the most common strategy for coping with crowding (42% of respondents), but shifts in the location of use at the reservoir and between reservoirs (spatial displacement) were also common (26% of respondents). Users who exhibit displacement behaviors were also more sensitive to conflict, facility issues, and environmental impacts.