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Protected areas are under immense pressure to safeguard much of the remaining global biodiversity and can be strained by unpredicted events such as the Covid-19 pandemic. Understanding the extent of the effects of the pandemic on protected area management and conservation outcomes is critical for recovery and future planning to buffer against these types of events. We used survey and focus group data to measure the perceived impact of the pandemic on protected areas in Mexico and outline the pathways that led to these conservation outcomes. Across 62 protected areas, we found substantial changes in management capacity, monitoring and tourism, and a slight increase in non-compliant activities. Our findings highlight the need to integrate short-term relief plans to support communities dependent on tourism, who were particularly vulnerable during the pandemic, and to increase access to technology and technical capacity to better sustain management activities during future crises.

Biological invasions are a major driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. The scale and pace of these invasions often exceed resources available for control, necessitating long‐term management strategies that balance complex sustainability goals. A social‐ecological systems (SES) approach offers a promising framework to guide decision‐making by considering the interconnectedness of human and natural systems. This study focuses on the invasion of Indo‐Pacific lionfish in coastal Belize, demonstrating how operationalising a SES approach can guide the co‐design and selection of coastal management strategies to address the complexities of widespread invasive species. Over 6 years, SES models were developed, refined, and applied to management through a participatory approach involving transdisciplinary knowledge holders and stakeholders. Initially, a broad conceptual model of the coastal system post‐invasion was developed and refined to identify key attributes quantifiable as indicators of the system's response to lionfish suppression efforts on the Belize Barrier Reef. This SES model was used to generate and evaluate potential management scenarios within the Belize National Lionfish Management Strategy. A market‐based approach, which introduced lionfish as a fishery target and incentivised lionfish tourism and a commercial fishery, emerged as the most effective strategy to reduce lionfish populations in Belize. Our approach provides a framework for engaging diverse perspectives and expertise, leading to co‐developed management actions with broad national support. The study underscores the value of SES framing in creating a holistic perspective on invasive species management, integrating ecological and social dimensions. Ultimately, our method of iteratively developing and refining SES models through participatory processes—from a complex conceptual model to a practical, indicator‐driven framework—can be adapted to create and assess durable solutions for managing widespread invasive species in stressed ecosystems worldwide. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Understanding sensitive behaviors-those that are socially unacceptable or non-compliant with rules or regulations-is essential for creating effective interventions. Sensitive behaviors are challenging to study, because participants are unlikely to disclose sensitive behaviors for fear of retribution or due to social undesirability. Methods for studying sensitive behavior include randomized response techniques, which provide anonymity to interviewees who answer sensitive questions. A variation on this approach, the quantitative randomized response technique (QRRT), allows researchers to estimate the frequency or quantity of sensitive behaviors. However, to date no studies have used QRRT to identify potential drivers of non-compliant behavior because regression methodology has not been developed for the nonnegative count data produced by QRRT. We develop a Poisson regression methodology for QRRT data, based on maximum likelihood estimation computed via the expectation-maximization (EM) algorithm. The methodology can be implemented with relatively minor modification of existing software for generalized linear models. We derive the Fisher information matrix in this setting and use it to obtain the asymptotic variance-covariance matrix of the regression parameter estimates. Simulation results demonstrate the quality of the asymptotic approximations. The method is illustrated with a case study examining potential drivers of non-compliance with hunting regulations in Sierra Leone. The new methodology allows assessment of the importance of potential drivers of different quantities of non-compliant behavior, using a likelihood-based, information-theoretic approach. Free, open-source software is provided to support QRRT regression.

Invasive lionfish (Pterois spp.) have rapidly spread across the Western Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. They reproduce frequently and consume native marine life important to livelihoods and reef health. To combat the deleterious impacts of this species, management efforts in Belize and throughout the invaded range have included development of a food market for lionfish. To determine the viability of a food market for lionfish and marketing strategies to sell lionfish in Belize, we conducted nationwide, structured surveys with a representative sample of foreign tourists (n = 400) and Belizean citizens and residents (BCRs) (n = 400). We assessed knowledge about lionfish, attitudes towards purchasing lionfish and food neophobia (fear of trying new food) to predict willingness to consume lionfish and compared the two groups. We found no significant difference in awareness or knowledge about lionfish between foreign tourists and BCRs. However, foreign tourists were more willing to try lionfish and exhibited significantly less food neophobia than BCRs. BCRs were more likely to believe lionfish is unsafe to eat, and often believe it is unsafe to handle, which poses a barrier as this group reported that they typically prepare seafood themselves rather than dine at restaurants. Taste and health were the most common reasons both groups eat seafood. Health was noted more often by BCRs, and foreign tourists often stated they chose seafood because it is fresh and available locally. Just 15% of BCRs and 16% of tourists have tried lionfish, but 50% of BCRs and 74% of tourists would be willing to try lionfish, suggesting a significant opportunity to increase the consumption of lionfish. Synthesis and applications. Findings support the viability of marketing lionfish in Belize to both BCRs and tourists given effective outreach and provide lessons learned for similar efforts throughout the invaded range. Outreach to BCRs should include safe handling and emphasize that lionfish is safe to eat, as the misperception that it is not is a barrier to consumption. Comparing lionfish to snapper in taste and texture is a promising approach for marketing to BCRs, while taste, health and benefits to the reef and local fishers are motivating for BCRs and tourists. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Resumen Las poblaciones invasoras de pez león (Pterois spp.), que se reproducen con alta frecuencia y depredan organismos marinos fundamentales para los medios de vida y la salud arrecifal, se han extendido rápidamente en el Océano Atlántico Occidental y el Mar Mediterráneo. Las estrategias de control en Belice y en toda la región invadida para mitigar los efectos nocivos de la especie incluyen el desarrollo de un mercado para el consumo de la carne del pez león. A fin de determinar la viabilidad de un mercado para el consumo del pez león y distinguir estrategias de comercialización para vender la carne del pez león en Belice, realizamos encuestas estructuradas a nivel nacional con muestras representativas de turistas extranjeros (n = 400) y de ciudadanos y residentes de Belize (BCRs, por su sigla en inglés; n = 400). Para predecir la disposición a consumir la carne de pez león y realizar la comparación entre ambos grupos, en cada grupo se evaluó la base de conocimiento sobre el pez león, actitudes hacia la compra de la carne del pez león, e incidencia de neofobia de comida (el miedo de probar comida novedosa). No se encontró ninguna diferencia significativa en la base de conocimiento sobre el pez león entre turistas extranjeros y BCRs, sin embargo los turistas extranjeros estaban más dispuestos a probar la carne del pez león y mostraron un nivel de neofobia de comida significativamente menor que los BCRs. Por su parte, los BCRs mostraron mayor propensión que los turistas extranjeros a creer que tanto consumir como manipular el pez león es peligroso. Esto constituye un obstáculo para desarrollar un mercado de esta carne, ya que este grupo reportó que normalmente prepara el marisco en casa en lugar de consumirlo en restaurantes. Para ambos grupos los motivos reportados para comer el marisco fueron el sabor y la salud. La salud fue señalada más frecuentemente por los BCRs en comparación con los turistas extranjeros. Los turistas extranjeros también indicaron a menudo que eligen el marisco porque está fresco y disponible localmente. Aunque sólo 15% de los BCRs y 16% de los turistas han probado el pez león, 50% de los BCRs y 74% de los turistas estarían dispuestos a probarlo, lo que señala una oportunidad significativa para fomentar el consumo del pez león. Síntesis y aplicación. Los resultados apoyan la viabilidad de promocionar el pez león en Belice a ambos grupos dado sensibilización efectiva, y también aporta lecciones aprendidas para los esfuerzos similares en todas las regiones afectadas con la invasión del pez león. Teniendo en consideración que un obstáculo es la percepción errónea entre los BCRs que es peligroso comer la carne del pez león, la sensibilización dirigida a los BCRs debe incluir información sobre la manipulación segura y enfatizar que la carne del pez león es segura para el consumo. Un enfoque prometedor para los BCRs sería posicionar la carne del pez león como comparable al pargo en sabor y textura. Ambos grupos están motivados por el sabor, la salud, y los beneficios para los pescadores locales y el arrecife. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Managing invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) in the Western Atlantic Ocean is beyond the capacity of natural resource organizations alone. In response, organizations have mobilized members of the public and citizen scientists to help. We used a structured survey to assess the activities and perceptions of 71 organizations that engage the public and citizen scientists in lionfish research and management throughout the invaded range of the Western Atlantic. Five case studies were also conducted that exemplified varied and multi-pronged approaches to engagement of the public and citizen scientists in lionfish control, monitoring, and knowledge-sharing. The public has been engaged to some extent in every approach, but organizations most frequently indicated engaging members of the public in raising awareness, promoting consumption, organized culling/removal, tournaments, and data collection. Sixty-five percent of organizations surveyed engaged the public in data collection, and data collection was ranked as the scientific research activity in which the public is most often involved. Most organizations indicated their data has contributed to scientific publications, management, and government agency research and/or policy. Collectively these findings demonstrate the conservation value of citizen scientists to assist organizational efforts to control, manage, and study a large-scale marine invasion.

Illegal use of natural resources is a threat to biodiversity globally, but research on illegal activities has methodological challenges. We examined 100 studies that empirically identify targeted resources, techniques used to procure resources illegally, locations of illegal activities, characteristics of typical violators, incentives driving illegal use of resources, magnitude of the problem of illegal use (e.g., quantities used), or frequency of illegal activity. We based our evaluation of the methods used in these studies on their ability to provide these empirical data, relative labor demands, training and technology requirements, and levels of uncontrollable bias. We evaluated eight different methods: law-enforcement records, indirect observation, self-reporting, direct observation, direct questioning, randomized response technique (a survey method designed to improve accuracy of responses to sensitive questions), forensics, and modeling. Different situations favored different methods, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Six context-specific factors--location of resource use (in situ vs. ex situ), budget, technology and training capacity, ease of detection of illegal activity, scope of illegal activity (limited vs. widespread), and researchers' willingness to accept bias in results--help narrow the choice of methods. Several methodological concerns applied to any study of illegal resource use: regular monitoring can detect trends; modeling can incorporate sampling error and data uncertainties; researchers must manage levels of bias that vary between methods; triangulation of results from multiple methods can improve accuracy. No method is a panacea, but a combination of techniques can help address the lack of data on illegal activity. Researchers empirically compared results from different methods in only four studies, and no one has compared more than two methods simultaneously. Conservation would benefit from more research focused on: methods comparisons that include cost effectiveness, time efficiency, and statistical rigor; unique applications of the eight techniques currently in use; and testing of new methods.

Capacity development is critical to long-term conservation success, yet we lack a robust and rigorous understanding of how well its effects are being evaluated. A comprehensive summary of who is monitoring and evaluating capacity development interventions, what is being evaluated and how, would help in the development of evidence-based guidance to inform design and implementation decisions for future capacity development interventions and evaluations of their effectiveness. We built an evidence map by reviewing peer-reviewed and grey literature published since 2000, to identify case studies evaluating capacity development interventions in biodiversity conservation and natural resource management. We used inductive and deductive approaches to develop a coding strategy for studies that met our criteria, extracting data on the type of capacity development intervention, evaluation methods, data and analysis types, categories of outputs and outcomes assessed, and whether the study had a clear causal model and/or used a systems approach. We found that almost all studies assessed multiple outcome types: most frequent was change in knowledge, followed by behaviour, then attitude. Few studies evaluated conservation outcomes. Less than half included an explicit causal model linking interventions to expected outcomes. Half of the studies considered external factors that could influence the efficacy of the capacity development intervention, and few used an explicit systems approach. We used framework synthesis to situate our evidence map within the broader literature on capacity development evaluation. Our evidence map (including a visual heat map) highlights areas of low and high representation in investment in research on the evaluation of capacity development.

Major invasions of Indo-Pacific lionfish ( Pterois volitans and P. miles ) are underway in the Western Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. While the establishment of lionfish in the Western Atlantic is perhaps the most well-studied marine fish invasion to date, the rapidly expanding invasion in the Mediterranean is more recent and has received less attention. Here we review and synthesize successes and failures from two decades of lionfish management in the Western Atlantic to give policy recommendations for their management in the Mediterranean. Two failed approaches that were attempted multiple times in the Western Atlantic and that we advise against are (1) feeding lionfish to native fish to promote predation and (2) implementing bounty programs to incentivize lionfish harvest. Broadly, the most important management lessons that we recommend include (1) conducting routine removals by spearfishing with scuba, which can effectively suppress local abundances of lionfish; (2) encouraging the development of recreational and commercial lionfish fisheries, which can promote long-term, sustainable lionfish population control; and, (3) engaging local communities and resource users (e.g., with lionfish removal tournaments), which can concurrently achieve multiple objectives of promoting lionfish removals, market-development, research, and public education. Managers in the Western Atlantic often needed to adapt current conservation policies to enable lionfish removals in areas where spearfishing with scuba was otherwise prohibited for conservation purposes. The risk of abusing these policies was mitigated through the use of gear restrictions, diver trainings, and through participatory approaches that integrated scuba divers and stakeholder organizations in lionfish research and management. Our review of policies and practices in the Mediterranean Sea found that many of our recommended lionfish management approaches are not being done and indicate potential opportunities to implement these. We expect and fully recommend that work continues towards multinational cooperation to facilitate regional coordination of research, control, and management efforts with respect to the Mediterranean lionfish invasion. As with other major biological invasions, lionfish are unconstrained by political borders and their control will require rapid and strategic management approaches with broad cooperation among and between governments and stakeholders.

Previous research reports bait-fishing in seven different species of ardeids. Our observations of Black-crowned Night Herons (Nycticorax nycticorax) on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, USA are the first to detail both passive and active bait-fishing in the same species. These observations provide support for the hypothesis that passive bait-fishing is a precursor to development of active bait-fishing methods in wading birds.