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Parkinson's disease is characterized by the loss of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area are more resistant to this degeneration than those in the SNc, though the mechanisms for selective resistance or vulnerability remain poorly understood. A key to elucidating these processes may lie within the subset of DA neurons that corelease glutamate and express the vesicular glutamate transporter VGLUT2. Here, we addressed the potential relationship between VGLUT expression and DA neuronal vulnerability by overexpressing VGLUT in DA neurons of flies and mice. In Drosophila, VGLUT overexpression led to loss of select DA neuron populations. Similarly, expression of VGLUT2 specifically in murine SNc DA neurons led to neuronal loss and Parkinsonian behaviors. Other neuronal cell types showed no such sensitivity, suggesting that DA neurons are distinctively vulnerable to VGLUT2 expression. Additionally, most DA neurons expressed VGLUT2 during development, and coexpression of VGLUT2 with DA markers increased following injury in the adult. Finally, conditional deletion of VGLUT2 made DA neurons more susceptible to Parkinsonian neurotoxins. These data suggest that the balance of VGLUT2 expression is a crucial determinant of DA neuron survival. Ultimately, manipulation of this VGLUT2-dependent process may represent an avenue for therapeutic development.

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) contains projection neurons that release the neurotransmitters dopamine, GABA, and/or glutamate from distal synapses. VTA also contains GABA neurons that synapse locally on to dopamine neurons, synapses widely credited to a population of so-called VTA interneurons. Interneurons in cortex, striatum, and elsewhere have well-defined morphological features, physiological properties, and molecular markers, but such features have not been clearly described in VTA. Indeed, there is scant evidence that local and distal synapses originate from separate populations of VTA GABA neurons. In this study, we tested whether several markers expressed in non-dopamine VTA neurons are selective markers of interneurons, defined as neurons that synapse locally but not distally. Challenging previous assumptions, we found that VTA neurons genetically defined by expression of parvalbumin, somatostatin, neurotensin, or Mu-opioid receptor project to known VTA targets including nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, lateral habenula, and prefrontal cortex. Moreover, we provide evidence that VTA GABA and glutamate projection neurons make functional inhibitory or excitatory synapses locally within VTA. These findings suggest that local collaterals of VTA projection neurons could mediate functions prior attributed to VTA interneurons. This study underscores the need for a refined understanding of VTA connectivity to explain how heterogeneous VTA circuits mediate diverse functions related to reward, motivation, or addiction.

IntroductionThe peripheral nervous system retains the intrinsic ability to regenerate: after nerve injury, axons can sprout and reinnervate their target organ. We hypothesized that this regenerative response was driven by a transcriptional program involving druggable gene targets that promote neurite outgrowth.MethodsSensory neurons were isolated from rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and cultured in vitro. Transcript levels were determined by sequencing of RNA. RNAscope was used to visualize GPR88 transcripts in individual subtypes of DRG neurons. Neurite outgrowth was quantified in the absence and presence of allosteric activators of GPR88 to generate concentration-response curves. Neuronal cultures were incubated in the presence of pertussis toxin and gallein to block Gi/Go- and βγ-dependent signalling, respectively.Results & DiscussionPlacing DRG neurons in culture severs their bipolar axons but they regrow spontaneously over several days. RNA sequencing revealed time-dependent differences in gene expression. The orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR88 was robustly upregulated during the early phase of regeneration. A search in publicly available datasets confirmed that the mRNA encoding GPR88 was upregulated after peripheral nerve injury. RNAScope in situ hybridization visualized the expression of GPR88 in all major subtypes of DRG neurons. The allosteric activators of GPR88 (RTI-13951-33, racemic 2-PCCA and its enantiomers) promoted the neurite outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner with EC50 values in the nanomolar range. Their effect was abolished by incubation with pertussis toxin and gallein. These observations identify GPR88 as a regulator of neurite outgrowth in DRG neurons and implicate Gi/Go as a component of the signaling pathway. The findings support the conclusion that GPR88 is a potential therapeutic target for accelerating peripheral nerve repair.

Psychiatric disease often produces symptoms that have divergent effects on neural activity. For example, in drug dependence, dysfunctional value-based decision-making and compulsive-like actions have been linked to hypo- and hyperactivity of orbital frontal cortex (OFC)-basal ganglia circuits, respectively; however, the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Here we show that alcohol-exposed mice have enhanced activity in OFC terminals in dorsal striatum (OFC-DS) associated with actions, but reduced activity of the same terminals during periods of outcome retrieval, corresponding with a loss of outcome control over decision-making. Disrupted OFC-DS terminal activity was due to a dysfunction of dopamine-type 1 receptors on spiny projection neurons (D1R SPNs) that resulted in increased retrograde endocannabinoid signaling at OFC-D1R SPN synapses reducing OFC-DS transmission. Blocking CB1 receptors restored OFC-DS activity in vivo and rescued outcome-based control over decision-making. These findings demonstrate a circuit-, synapse-, and computation-specific mechanism gating OFC activity in alcohol-exposed mice.

Nerve functions require phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP ₂) that binds to ion channels, thereby controlling their gating. Channel properties are also attributed to serotonin transporters (SERTs); however, SERT regulation by PIP ₂ has not been reported. SERTs control neurotransmission by removing serotonin from the extracellular space. An increase in extracellular serotonin results from transporter-mediated efflux triggered by amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Herein, we altered the abundance of PIP ₂ by activating phospholipase-C (PLC), using a scavenging peptide, and inhibiting PIP ₂-synthesis. We tested the effects of the verified scarcity of PIP ₂ on amphetamine-triggered SERT functions in human cells. We observed an interaction between SERT and PIP ₂ in pull-down assays. On decreased PIP ₂ availability, amphetamine-evoked currents were markedly reduced compared with controls, as was amphetamine-induced efflux. Signaling downstream of PLC was excluded as a cause for these effects. A reduction of substrate efflux due to PLC activation was also found with recombinant noradrenaline transporters and in rat hippocampal slices. Transmitter uptake was not affected by PIP ₂ reduction. Moreover, SERT was revealed to have a positively charged binding site for PIP ₂. Mutation of the latter resulted in a loss of amphetamine-induced SERT-mediated efflux and currents, as well as a lack of PIP ₂-dependent effects. Substrate uptake and surface expression were comparable between mutant and WT SERTs. These findings demonstrate that PIP ₂ binding to monoamine transporters is a prerequisite for amphetamine actions without being a requirement for neurotransmitter uptake. These results open the way to target amphetamine-induced SERT-dependent actions independently of normal SERT function and thus to treat psychostimulant addiction.

The peripheral nervous system retains the intrinsic ability to regenerate: after nerve injury, axons can sprout and reinnervate their target organ. We hypothesized that this regenerative response was driven by a transcriptional program involving druggable gene targets that promote neurite outgrowth. Sensory neurons were isolated from rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and cultured in vitro. Transcript levels were determined by sequencing of RNA. RNAscope was used to visualize GPR88 transcripts in individual subtypes of DRG neurons. Neurite outgrowth was quantified in the absence and presence of allosteric activators of GPR88 to generate concentration-response curves. Neuronal cultures were incubated in the presence of pertussis toxin and gallein to block Gi/Go- and βγ-dependent signalling, respectively. Placing DRG neurons in culture severs their bipolar axons but they regrow spontaneously over several days. RNA sequencing revealed time-dependent differences in gene expression. The orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR88 was robustly upregulated during the early phase of regeneration. A search in publicly available datasets confirmed that the mRNA encoding GPR88 was upregulated after peripheral nerve injury. RNAScope in situ hybridization visualized the expression of GPR88 in all major subtypes of DRG neurons. The allosteric activators of GPR88 (RTI-13951-33, racemic 2-PCCA and its enantiomers) promoted the neurite outgrowth in a concentration-dependent manner with EC values in the nanomolar range. Their effect was abolished by incubation with pertussis toxin and gallein. These observations identify GPR88 as a regulator of neurite outgrowth in DRG neurons and implicate Gi/Go as a component of the signaling pathway. The findings support the conclusion that GPR88 is a potential therapeutic target for accelerating peripheral nerve repair.

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) contains projection neurons that release the neurotransmitters dopamine, GABA, and/or glutamate from distal synapses. VTA also contains GABA neurons that synapse locally on to dopamine neurons, synapses widely credited to a population of so-called VTA interneurons. Interneurons in cortex, striatum, and elsewhere have well-defined morphological features, physiological properties, and molecular markers, but such features have not been clearly described in VTA. Indeed, there is scant evidence that local and distal synapses originate from separate populations of VTA GABA neurons. In this study, we tested whether several markers expressed in non-dopamine VTA neurons are selective markers of interneurons, defined as neurons that synapse locally but not distally. Challenging previous assumptions, we found that VTA neurons genetically defined by expression of parvalbumin, somatostatin, neurotensin, or Mu-opioid receptor project to known VTA targets including nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, lateral habenula, and prefrontal cortex. Moreover, we provide evidence that VTA GABA and glutamate projection neurons make functional inhibitory or excitatory synapses locally within VTA. These findings suggest that local collaterals of VTA projection neurons could mediate functions prior attributed to VTA interneurons. This study underscores the need for a refined understanding of VTA connectivity to explain how heterogeneous VTA circuits mediate diverse functions related to reward, motivation, or addiction.

Age is the greatest risk factor for Parkinson's disease (PD) which causes progressive loss of dopamine (DA) neurons, with males at greater risk than females. Intriguingly, some DA neurons are more resilient to degeneration than others. Increasing evidence suggests that vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) expression in DA neurons plays a role in this selective vulnerability. We investigated the role of DA neuron VGLUT in sex‐ and age‐related differences in DA neuron vulnerability using the genetically tractable Drosophila model. We found sex differences in age‐related DA neurodegeneration and its associated locomotor behavior, where males exhibit significantly greater decreases in both DA neuron number and locomotion during aging compared with females. We discovered that dynamic changes in DA neuron VGLUT expression mediate these age‐ and sex‐related differences, as a potential compensatory mechanism for diminished DA neurotransmission during aging. Importantly, female Drosophila possess higher levels of VGLUT expression in DA neurons compared with males, and this finding is conserved across flies, rodents, and humans. Moreover, we showed that diminishing VGLUT expression in DA neurons eliminates females' greater resilience to DA neuron loss across aging. This offers a new mechanism for sex differences in selective DA neuron vulnerability to age‐related DA neurodegeneration. Finally, in mice, we showed that the ability of DA neurons to achieve optimal control over VGLUT expression is essential for DA neuron survival. These findings lay the groundwork for the manipulation of DA neuron VGLUT expression as a novel therapeutic strategy to boost DA neuron resilience to age‐ and PD‐related neurodegeneration. Dopamine neuron VGLUT mediates age‐ and sex‐related differences in dopamine neurodegeneration during aging. Female Drosophila, rats and humans express more VGLUT in dopamine neurons than males, and VGLUT knockdown in dopamine neurons diminishes sex differences in vulnerability to age‐related degeneration. The ability to finely tune dopamine neuron VGLUT expression boosts resilience while either too little or too much VGLUT leaves dopamine neurons more vulnerable to neurodegeneration.

Addiction to psychostimulants (ie, amphetamines and cocaine) imposes a major socioeconomic burden. Prevention and treatment represent unmet medical needs, which may be addressed, if the mechanisms underlying psychostimulant action are understood. Cocaine acts as a blocker at the transporters for dopamine (DAT), serotonin (SERT), and norepinephrine (NET), but amphetamines are substrates that do not only block the uptake of monoamines but also induce substrate efflux by promoting reverse transport. Reverse transport has been a focus of research for decades but its mechanistic basis still remains enigmatic. Recently, transporter-interacting proteins were found to regulate amphetamine-triggered reverse transport: calmodulin kinase IIα (αCaMKII) is a prominent example, because it binds the carboxyl terminus of DAT, phosphorylates its amino terminus, and supports amphetamine-induced substrate efflux in vitro. Here, we investigated whether, in vivo, the action of amphetamine was contingent on the presence of αCaMKII by recording the behavioral and neurochemical effects of amphetamine. Measurement of dopamine efflux in the dorsal striatum by microdialysis revealed that amphetamine induced less dopamine efflux in mice lacking αCaMKII. Consistent with this observation, the acute locomotor responses to amphetamine were also significantly blunted in αCaMKII-deficient mice. In addition, while the rewarding properties of amphetamine were preserved in αCaMKII-deficient mice, their behavioral sensitization to amphetamine was markedly reduced. Our findings demonstrate that amphetamine requires the presence of αCaMKII to elicit a full-fledged effect on DAT in vivo: αCaMKII does not only support acute amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux but is also important in shaping the chronic response to amphetamine.

Addiction to psychostimulants (ie, amphetamines and cocaine) imposes a major socioeconomic burden. Prevention and treatment represent unmet medical needs, which may be addressed, if the mechanisms underlying psychostimulant action are understood. Cocaine acts as a blocker at the transporters for dopamine (DAT), serotonin (SERT), and norepinephrine (NET), but amphetamines are substrates that do not only block the uptake of monoamines but also induce substrate efflux by promoting reverse transport. Reverse transport has been a focus of research for decades but its mechanistic basis still remains enigmatic. Recently, transporter-interacting proteins were found to regulate amphetamine-triggered reverse transport: calmodulin kinase IIα (αCaMKII) is a prominent example, because it binds the carboxyl terminus of DAT, phosphorylates its amino terminus, and supports amphetamine-induced substrate efflux in vitro. Here, we investigated whether, in vivo, the action of amphetamine was contingent on the presence of αCaMKII by recording the behavioral and neurochemical effects of amphetamine. Measurement of dopamine efflux in the dorsal striatum by microdialysis revealed that amphetamine induced less dopamine efflux in mice lacking αCaMKII. Consistent with this observation, the acute locomotor responses to amphetamine were also significantly blunted in αCaMKII-deficient mice. In addition, while the rewarding properties of amphetamine were preserved in αCaMKII-deficient mice, their behavioral sensitization to amphetamine was markedly reduced. Our findings demonstrate that amphetamine requires the presence of αCaMKII to elicit a full-fledged effect on DAT in vivo: αCaMKII does not only support acute amphetamine-induced dopamine efflux but is also important in shaping the chronic response to amphetamine.