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"Sukardjo, Sukristijono"
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The loss of species: Mangrove extinction risk and geographic areas of global concern
Mangrove species are uniquely adapted to tropical and subtropical coasts, and although relatively low in number of species, mangrove forests provide at least US $1.6 billion each year in ecosystem services and support coastal livelihoods worldwide. Globally, mangrove areas are declining rapidly as they are cleared for coastal development and aquaculture and logged for timber and fuel production. Little is known about the effects of mangrove area loss on individual mangrove species and local or regional populations. To address this gap, species-specific information on global distribution, population status, life history traits, and major threats were compiled for each of the 70 known species of mangroves. Each species' probability of extinction was assessed under the Categories and Criteria of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Eleven of the 70 mangrove species (16%) are at elevated threat of extinction. Particular areas of geographical concern include the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Central America, where as many as 40% of mangroves species present are threatened with extinction. Across the globe, mangrove species found primarily in the high intertidal and upstream estuarine zones, which often have specific freshwater requirements and patchy distributions, are the most threatened because they are often the first cleared for development of aquaculture and agriculture. The loss of mangrove species will have devastating economic and environmental consequences for coastal communities, especially in those areas with low mangrove diversity and high mangrove area or species loss. Several species at high risk of extinction may disappear well before the next decade if existing protective measures are not enforced.
Journal Article
Rapid litter production and accumulation in Bornean mangrove forests
Litter fall and accumulation were measured weekly for one year (January-December 2007) at five mangrove forests within the Apar-Adang Nature Reserve, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Three forests were located near the sea edge, each co-dominated by combinations of
Sonnertia alba
,
Rhizophora apiculata
, and
Bruguiera parviflora
; two forests were co-dominated by
Ceriops decandra
,
Exocoecaria agallocha
, and
Bruguiera sexangula
(site IV), and by
B. parviflora
and
B. sexangula
(site V) and located further inland but subjected to intermittant freshwater inputs. Mean rates of annual litter production at forests I to V were 20.3, 19.7, 27.2, 24.2 and 27.6 Mg DW ha
−1
yr
−1
(mean of all forests = 23.7 Mg DW ha
−1
yr
−1
) and rates of litter accumulation were 44.4, 50.2, 45.9, 61.3 and 66.2 Mg DW ha
−1
yr
−1
(mean of all forests = 57.8 Mg DW ha
−1
yr
−1
), respectively, exhibiting peaks in the wet and dry seasons. Litter accumulation was greater than litter fall due to tidal advection of litter from forests closer to the sea edge coupled with slow decay rates. These rates of aboveground litter production and accumulation are the highest recorded for mangroves and higher than rates measured in tropical humid evergreen forests, suggesting that large expanses of equatorial mangrove forest, such as those on Borneo, may constitute an immense sink for coastal carbon.
Journal Article
Mangrove community structure and regeneration potential on a rapidly expanding, river delta in Java
Key message
Mangroves in rapidly expanding Southeast Asian river deltas form floristically simple zones dominated by a few highly regenerative species adaptable or tolerant to rapid sedimentation and extensive river flooding.
The size class distribution, community composition and spatial structure of five representative mangrove forests in the rapidly expanding Cimanuk river delta on Java were determined. These deltaic forests are species-poor (eight true mangrove species) and spatially segregated into three distinct floristic zones: (1) a fringing, low intertidal zone co-dominated by
Avicennia marina
and
A. officinalis
, with less abundant
Bruguiera parviflora
,
Rhizophora apiculata
, and
R. mucronata
; (2) a zone transitional between the low and mid intertidal in which
Avicennia
and
Rhizophora
spp. co-dominate; and (3) a mid intertidal zone dominated by
R. mucronata
and
R. apiculata
. Numerically dominated by seedlings (52,500–73,500 seedlings ha
−1
) and saplings (5,268–5,660 saplings ha
−1
), all five forests are relatively young and actively regenerating. Positive correlations of tree stem diameter and tree height with soil organic matter and P concentrations, salinity, the soil C/N ratio, pH, and silt/clay composition highlight the importance of soil factors in sustaining forest growth. The low diversity and relative structural simplicity of these rapidly growing and regenerating forests may be attributed to adaptation or tolerance to flooding and the rapid sedimentation and seaward expansion of the delta.
Journal Article