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Milk processing is one of the most ancient food technologies, dating back around 6000 BC. The majority of dairy products are manufactured from cows, buffaloes, goats, and sheep; their production technologies are mostly standardized and have been widely investigated. Milk and dairy products from minor species are less important under the economic point of view, but they play a fundamental social role in many marginal and poor areas. Due to scarce interest of the dairy industry, their technological characteristics and related issues have been investigated less. Recently, the increasing interest toward ethnic foods and food biodiversity is helping these minor products to emerge from the “darkness” in which they have remained for long time. Some of them are increasingly seen as useful for the valorization of marginal areas, while others are recognized as innovative or healthy foods. The present review aims to resume the most recent knowledge about these less-known dairy products. The first part summarizes the main technological properties of equine, camel, and yak milk with a view to processing. The second is a survey on the related dairy products, both the traditional ones that have been manufactured for a long time and those that have been newly developed by food researchers.

Horses have undergone extensive natural and artificial selection, shaping the diversity of breeds observed today. Native Italian breeds present unique traits influenced by natural selection, such as adaptation to harsh climates, or hoof strength, but face challenges due to population declines and the reduction of their original breeding purpose. This study focuses on five local Italian breeds: Bardigiano, Haflinger, Maremmano, Murgese, and Italian Heavy Draught Horse, to understand how selection has shaped their populations. A total of 1620 individuals were genotyped with a medium-density SNP chip and remapped to EquCab3. After quality control, where data were filtered based on missing genotypes per SNP (> 0.10) and missing SNPs per sample (> 0.10), 1498 horses and 54,825 SNPs remained for analysis. Population structure and runs of homozygosity (ROH) were identified, and genomic inbreeding coefficients were calculated based on ROH coverage of autosomal SNPs. ROH islands shared by ≥ 70% of horses were identified as selection signatures, and candidate genes within these regions were annotated. The inbreeding coefficient (FROH) ranged from 0.15 to 0.23, with Bardigiano and Haflinger showing the highest values probably due to selective breeding, while Maremmano, Murgese, and Italian Heavy Draught Horse displayed lower FROH, reflecting a broader diversity. ROH islands were identified on 12 chromosomes, with 23 islands distributed among breeds. Cold-blooded breeds (Bardigiano, Haflinger, and Italian Heavy Draught Horse) showed the majority, particularly on Equine Chromosome 3 (ECA3). These islands overlapped with 83 quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and 76 genes associated with morphology and health. Health-related traits such as osteochondrosis and hoof health were linked to ROH patterns, particularly in Bardigiano and Haflinger, highlighting selection for disease resistance. Signature of selections were found in the proximity of MC1R and ASIP genes likely due to their role for coat color; especially in the Haflinger and Italian Heavy Draught Horse the genotype frequency of the BIEC2_816499 SNP which is in the vicinity of the causative mutation for chestnut coat color is due to linkage disequilibrium between the two. In conclusion, this study offered valuable insights that breeders could utilize to make sound decisions. This issue would ensure the maintenance of breed genetic diversity, and the preservation and improvement of the breed’s distinct traits and health standards.

Italian hard cooked types of cheese, like Parmigiano Reggiano and Grana Padano, are characterised by positive nutritional qualities. In fact, they contain substances that have particular biological activities, and therefore they can be fully considered, according to the definition given by the European Unit, as 'functional' foods. This short review concisely describes these components and the beneficial effects related to their activities. The description of the biologically active components has been organised in the following paragraphs: protein and peptides, fat and lipids, carbohydrates and prebiotics, probiotic bacteria, vitamins, mineral salts, and components of dairy products active in disease prevention. In particular, several known bioactive peptides were found in Parmigiano Reggiano cheese samples: for example, phosphopeptides, which are known for their mineral-binding capacity and vehiculation activity, peptides with immunomodulatory activity, and angiotensin-converting enzyme-inhibitory peptides with anti-hypertensive effects. Among lipids, the role of conjugated linoleic acid and other fatty acids present in these cheese types was taken into consideration. The presence of oligosaccharides with prebiotic properties and probiotic bacteria was also described. Finally, particular emphasis was given to highly available calcium and its impact on bone health.

Recent available instruments allow to record the number of differential somatic cell count (DSCC), representing the combined proportion of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes, on a large number of milk samples. Milk DSCC provides indirect information on the udder health status of dairy cows. However, literature is limited regarding the effect of DSCC on milk composition at the individual cow level, as well as its relation to the somatic cell score (SCS). Hence, the aims of this study were to (i) investigate the effect of different levels of DSCC on milk composition (fat, protein, casein, casein index, and lactose) and (ii) explore the combined effect of DSCC and SCS on these traits. Statistical models included the fixed effects of days in milk, parity, SCS, DSCC and the interaction between SCS × DSCC, and the random effects of herd, animal within parity, and repeated measurements within cow. Results evidenced a decrease of milk fat and an increase in milk fatty acids at increasing DSCC levels, while protein, casein and their proportion showed their lowest values at the highest DSCC. A positive association was found between DSCC and lactose. The interaction between SCS and DSCC was important for lactose and casein index, as they varied differently upon high and low SCS and according to DSCC levels.

Nero di Parma is an endangered swine breed reared in the North of Italy which nowadays counts 1603 alive pigs. The aims of this study were (i) to explore the genetic diversity of the breed at pedigree level to determine the actual genetic structure, (ii) to evaluate the effectiveness of the breeding recovery project and (iii) to potentially propose breeding strategies for the coming generations. The pedigree dataset contained 14,485 animals and was used to estimate demographic and genetic parameters. The mean equivalent complete generations was equal to 6.47 in the whole population, and it reached a mean value of 7.94 in the live animals, highlighting the quality of the available data. Average inbreeding was 0.28 in the total population, whereas it reached 0.31 in the alive animals and it decreased to 0.27 if only breeding animals were considered. The rate of inbreeding based on the individual increase in inbreeding was equal to 7%. This study showed the effectiveness of the recovery project of the breed. Nevertheless, we found that inbreeding and genetic diversity have reached alarming levels, therefore novel breeding strategies must be applied to ensure long-term survival of this breed.

Genetic diversity has become an urgent matter not only in small local breeds but also in more specialized ones. While the use of genomic data in livestock breeding programs increased genetic gain, there is increasing evidence that this benefit may be counterbalanced by the potential loss of genetic variability. Thus, in this study, we aimed to investigate the genetic diversity in the Italian Holstein dairy cattle using pedigree and genomic data from cows born between 2002 and 2020. We estimated variation in inbreeding, effective population size, and generation interval and compared those aspects prior to and after the introduction of genomic selection in the breed. The dataset contained 84,443 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and 74,485 cows were analyzed. Pedigree depth based on complete generation equivalent was equal to 10.67. A run of homozygosity (ROH) analysis was adopted to estimate SNP-based inbreeding (F ROH ). The average pedigree inbreeding was 0.07, while the average F ROH was more than double, being equal to 0.17. The pattern of the effective population size based on pedigree and SNP data was similar although different in scale, with a constant decrease within the last five generations. The overall inbreeding rate (ΔF) per year was equal to +0.27% and +0.44% for F ped and F ROH throughout the studied period, which corresponded to about +1.35% and +2.2% per generation, respectively. A significant increase in the ΔF was found since the introduction of genomic selection in the breed. This study in the Italian Holstein dairy cattle showed the importance of controlling the loss of genetic diversity to ensure the long-term sustainability of this breed, as well as to guarantee future market demands.

Dairy cattle breeds have been exposed to intense artificial selection for milk production traits over the last fifty years. In Italy, where over 80% of milk is processed into cheese, selection has also focused on cheese-making traits. Due to a deep-rooted tradition in cheese-making, currently fifty Italian cheeses are marked with the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) label as they proved traditional land of origin and procedures for milk transformation. This study aimed to explore from a genetic point of view if the presence of such diverse productive contexts in Italy have shaped in a different manner the genome of animals originally belonging to a same breed. We analyzed high density genotype data from 1000 Italian Holstein cows born between 2014 and 2018. Those animals were either farmed in one of four Italian PDO consortia or used for drinkable milk production only. Runs of Homozygosity, Bayesian Information Criterion and Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components were used to evaluate potential signs of genetic divergence within the breed. We showed that the analyzed Italian Holstein cows have genomic inbreeding level above 5% in all subgroups, reflecting the presence of ongoing artificial selection in the breed. Our study provided a comprehensive representation of the genetic structure of the Italian Holstein breed, highlighting the presence of potential genetic subgroups due to divergent dairy farming systems. This study can be used to further investigate genetic variants underlying adaptation traits in these subgroups, which in turn might be used to design more specialized breeding programs.

Objective: The aim was to study the influence of cooling milk at 9°C at the farm versus keeping it at 20°C on Parmigiano Reggiano cheese lipolysis.Methods: A total of six cheesemaking trials (3 in winter and 3 in summer) were performed. In each trial, milk was divided continuously into two identical aliquots, one of which was kept at 9°C (MC9) and the other at 20°C (MC20). For each trial and milk temperature, vat milk (V-milk) and the resulting 21 month ripened cheese were analysed.Results: Fat and dry matter and fat/casein ratio were lower in MC9 V-milk (p≤0.05) than in MC20. Total bacteria, mesophilic lactic acid and psychrotrophic and lipolytic bacteria showed significant differences (p≤0.05) between the two V-milks. Regarding cheese, fat content resulted lower and crude protein higher (p≤0.05) both in outer (OZ) and in inner zone (IZ) of the MC9 cheese wheels. Concerning total fatty acids, the MC9 OZ had a lower concentration of butyric, capric (p≤0.05) and medium chain fatty acids (p≤0.05), while the MC9 IZ had lower content of butyric (p≤0.05), caproic (p≤0.01) and short chain fatty acids (p≤0.05). The levels of short chain and medium chain free fatty acids (p≤0.05) were lower and that of long chain fatty acids (p≤0.05) was higher in MC9 OZ cheese. The principal component analysis of total and free fatty acids resulted in a clear separation among samples by seasons, whereas slight differences were observed between the two different milk temperatures.Conclusion: Storing milk at 9°C at the herd affects the chemical composition of Parmigiano Reggiano, with repercussion on lipolysis. However, the changes are not very relevant, and since the cheese can present a high variability among the different cheese factories, such changes should be considered within the “normal variations” of Parmigiano Reggiano chemical characteristics.

The milk whey remaining at the end of the cheese-making process is the main by-product of the dairy industries and it is currently used as a source of high added-value compounds by the food and pharmaceutical industries. The aim of this research was to study the effects of the season on the residual whey characteristics in the Parmigiano Reggiano cheese-making process. Over two years, a total of 288 cheese-making trials of Parmigiano Reggiano PDO (Protected Designation of Origin) cheese were performed in three commercial cheese factories and, in each trial, a sample of the vat milk (V-milk) and of the residual whey (C-whey) were collected. The C-whey values of dry matter and non-fat matter were higher in winter and autumn than in spring and summer. Moreover, the C-whey fat and crude protein contents were also higher in autumn (0.52 and 0.89 g/100 g, respectively) and lower in spring (0.44 and 0.83 g/100 g, respectively) and summer (0.46 and 0.84 g/100 g, respectively). Furthermore, crude whey protein resulted to be the major fraction of crude protein (97.96%). Crude whey protein and true whey protein were higher in autumn and lower in spring and summer and their values mainly depended on milk whey protein. Finally, the C-whey average contents of phosphorus and magnesium were higher in autumn and winter than in summer.