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Denial-of-service (DoS) detection techniques - such as activity profiling, change-point detection, and wavelet-based signal analysis - face the considerable challenge of discriminating network-based flooding attacks from sudden increases in legitimate activity or flash events. This survey of techniques and testing results provides insight into our ability to successfully identify DoS flooding attacks. Although each detector shows promise in limited testing, none completely solve the detection problem. Combining various approaches with experienced network operators most likely produce the best results.

Studies on the assessment of land degradation, overland flow, soil loss, and nutrient loss have emerged as paramount importance for food security and rural livelihood in the mountains. The present study dealt with similar issues in the Eastern Himalayas, for which the primary data were collected from the field during 2017–18. Quantitative and qualitative methods were used to collect data on soil erosion and information on overland flow, soil loss, and nutrient loss was assessed through field experiments in the watershed of Sikkim, Eastern Himalayas. The first section of the methodology deals with the experimental analysis from different land use categories to quantify soil loss. In the second section, detailed qualitative analyses of farmers’ perceptions of soil erosion indicators were recorded through field surveys, i.e., key informant interviews (KEIs) and focus group discussions (FDGs). The results showed that the highest overland flow was in barren land (8.63%) followed by large cardamom-based agroforestry system (7.02%), and mixed cropping (4.84%), and the lowest overland flow was in terrace cultivation (4.69%). Soil loss was estimated to be the highest for barren land (7.73 Mg/ha/year (megagram/hectare/year)) followed by mixed cropping (4.32 Mg/ha/year), and terrace cultivation (3.75 Mg/ha/year), with the least soil loss estimated to be in cardamom-based agroforestry (3.23 Mg/ha/year). Loss of nitrogen (N) (4.49 kg/ha/year) and phosphorous (P) (2.43 kg/ha/year) were highest in barren land, while potassium (K) loss was highest (4.30 kg/ha/year) in mixed farming. The lowest N loss rate (3.34 kg/ha/year) was in terrace cultivation, the lowest P loss rate (8.19 kg/ha/year) was in mixed farming, and the lowest potassium loss rate (3.28 kg/ha/year) was in cardamom-based agroforestry. Approximately 33% of the farmers acknowledged light or no soil losses, while 17% of the farmers accepted moderate soil erosion. The results of field survey indicated that only 15–19% of the farmers reported high or extreme soil loss in the fields. Farmers in the watershed are practicing multiple measures to control land degradation; however, marginal farmers are still vulnerable and need strong support from the government to safeguard their land.

Groundwater quality monitoring and geochemical characterization in the phreatic aquifer are critical for ensuring universal and equitable access to clean, reliable, and inexpensive drinking water for all. This research was intended to investigate the hydrogeochemical attributes and mechanisms regulating the chemistry of groundwater as well as to assess spatial variation in groundwater quality in Satna district, India. To accomplish this, the groundwater data comprising 13 physio-chemical parameters from thirty-eight phreatic aquifer locations were analysed for May 2020 by combining entropy-weighted water quality index (EWQI), multivariate statistics, geochemical modelling, and geographical information system. The findings revealed that the groundwater is fresh and slightly alkaline. Hardness was a significant concern as 57.89% of samples were beyond the permissible limit of the World Health Organisation. The dominance of ions were in the order of Ca 2+  > Na +  > Mg 2+  > K + and HCO 3 −  > SO 4 2−  > Cl −  > NO 3 −  > F − . Higher concentration of these ions is mainly concentrated in the northeast and eastern regions. Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that both natural and human factors regulate groundwater chemistry in the region. The analysis of Q-mode agglomerative hierarchical clustering highlighted three significant water clusters. Ca–HCO 3 was the most prevalent hydro-chemical facies in all three clusters. Geochemical modelling through various conventional plots indicated that groundwater chemistry in the research region is influenced by the dissolution of calcite/dolomite, reverse ion exchange, and by silicate and halite weathering. EWQI data of the study area disclosed that 73.69% of the samples were appropriate for drinking. Due to high salinity, Magnesium (Mg 2+ ), Nitrate (NO 3 − ), and Bicarbonate (HCO 3 − ) concentrations, the north-central and north-eastern regions are particularly susceptible. The findings of the study may be accomplished by policymakers and groundwater managers to achieve sustainable groundwater development at the regional scale.

The present study tries to delineate groundwater zones in the Upper-Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, India based on its suitability for the use of domestic and irrigation purposes considering the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater samples ( n ∼ 70) using Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) and Composite Groundwater Quality Index for Irrigation (CGQII) methods, respectively. The Upper-Doab region of Uttar Pradesh is bounded by the mighty rivers of Ganga and Yamuna in the east and west respectively. In the southwest, the region shares the boundary with the national capital of Delhi, which has led to an increase in the growth of urbanization and industrialization in the region. These factors have a visible negative impact on the groundwater scenario of the region. Hydrogeochemical investigation reveals that the ionic dominance in the groundwater samples is in the order of HCO 3 > Cl > SO 4 > NO 3 > F and Na > Mg > Ca > K. Chemical history of groundwater samples using piper-trilinear diagram shows that Ca-Mg-HCO 3 and Ca-Na-HCO 3 type of groundwater is mostly found in this region. Gibb’s plot reveals that rock-water interaction was dominantly controlling the ionic composition of the groundwater in the unconfined aquifer environment. Further, the bivariate plot of (SO 4 + HCO 3 ) vs. (Ca + Mg) reveals that the weathering of calcite and dolomite minerals present in the aquifer environment has largely attributed chemical character to the groundwater of the region. The groundwater zoning concerning its domestic and agricultural use reveals that the groundwater of Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, Baghpat, Ghaziabad, and Gautam Buddha Nagar districts have poorer quality of groundwater due to high electrical conductivity and higher concentration of nitrate which has a higher anthropogenic link. The evaluation of groundwater quality for irrigation using a single index value i.e., CGQII makes this study different from the other hydrochemical investigations under similar hydrogeolocal aquifer conditions in the region. The study suggests that corrective measures like, strict implementation of untreated discharge of industrial effluents to the water or groundwater directly, creating awareness among farmers for lesser use of chemical fertilizers, and regular groundwater monitoring systems for quality analysis must be considered for a sustainable future of the region.

Adaptive capacity was recognized as one of the critical components of vulnerability assessment in 2001 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Adaptive capacity extends beyond the mere accumulation of resources to encompass the willingness and ability to transform available resources into adaptive actions. In this context, adaptive capacity denotes the ability of social-ecological systems to adjust to the negative effects of environmental change or recovery from it. Hence, enhancing adaptive capacity enriches the ability to cope with a wider spectrum and greater magnitude of climate impacts. Based on the literature review and content analysis, this study explores the foundational concepts of adaptive capacity and further assesses the evolving focus on concept, scale, geographical emphasis, dimensions, and indicators through a systematic review. The findings underscore that adaptive capacity constitutes a multidimensional and interdisciplinary research domain characterized by a range of dimensions and indicators, and diverse methods and techniques at various geographic scales. The study found that adaptive capacity research has predominantly centered on asset-based analyses within the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework in the earlier stage. However, since the past decade, the focus has shifted to indicators like agency, technology, innovation, governance, knowledge, information, and infrastructure, besides climate variability and socio-economic and cultural diversity. It is suggested that to bridge the gap between adaptive capacity and actual adaptation action, policy interventions need to be targeted. The study concludes that, despite abundant research and available literature on climate change and adaptation, there is still a lack of context-specific understanding, particularly from an insider’s perspective in South Asia.

A catastrophic flood occurred on 7 February 2021 around 10:30 AM (local time) in the Rishiganga River, which has been attributed to a rockslide in the upper reach of the Raunthi River. The Resourcesat 2 LISS IV (8 February 2021) and CNES Airbus satellite imagery (9 February 2021) clearly show the location of displaced materials. The solar radiation observed was higher than normal by 10% and 25% on 6 and 7 February 2021, respectively, however, the temperature shows up to 34% changes. These conditions are responsible for the sudden change in instability in glacier blocks causing deadly rock-ice slides that led to the collapse of the hanging glacier as a wedge failure. The displaced materials mixed with ice, snow, and debris caused catastrophic floods downstream within no time that destroyed critical infrastructure and killed human lives. The hydrodynamic modelling (HEC-RAS software) shows mean flow velocity up to 22.4 ± 8.6 m/s with an average depth of 16.3 ± 6.5 m that caused deadly devastation in the source region and along the rivers due to the flow of water in the valley.

Purpose Various national and international policy instruments have been formulated to minimize vulnerability to climate risk at all scales, from the global to the local. However, gaps in adaptation and the adaptation process pose major impediments to the current climate change response in South Asia. This paper aims to examine climate change adaptation (CCA) policy implementation practices in Nepal, Bangladesh and India at the local level and identify adaptation gaps in the agriculture sector. Design/methodology/approach The study uses primary and secondary data and triangulation methods following a qualitative approach. A household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interview, policy documents and extensive literature review were conducted to examine policy and adaptation gaps. Findings The study found that, despite the provision limited access to finance, knowledge various financial instruments for CCA, smallholder farmers in India have very limited access. In contrast, farmers in Bangladesh have higher access to institutions, but their willingness to participate is low and the government’s delivery mechanism is poor. In Nepal, farmers face barriers to physical access and have limited financial instruments. Lack of sectoral integration, alignment on CCA targets and financing at the local level are major gaps on the policy front. Lack of understanding and awareness of CCA in a local sociocultural context among implementation authorities and weak institutional mechanisms are gaps at the institutional front. Reactive adaptation, such as increased use of chemical fertilizers and changing crop varieties without proper understanding, is a common adaptive action (inclining toward maladaptation) among farmers. Originality/value This paper recommends that understanding the adaptation response during policy updates and the implementation process offers insights into future anticipation and responses for successful CCA policy implementation.

The present study attempts to delineate groundwater zones using multi-criteria decision analysis based on land-use/cover pattern, groundwater table, and groundwater quality for both domestic and agricultural use in the Bist-Doab region of Punjab, India. The region has about 71% land under agricultural activities, 12% under built-up area, 7% under forest cover, 5% under tree plantation, 3% under water bodies, and the remaining 2% under open area. As far as the groundwater table is concerned, about 8% of the region has a groundwater table below 30 m, mainly around the urban areas of Jalandhar. Qualitatively, the groundwater has not been found suitable for domestic consumption in areas around Jaijjon, Taunsa, Jalandhar urban agglomeration, Shahkot, and Nakodar blocks. In 10% of areas of Sultanpur Lodhi, Shahkot, Nakodar, Phagwara, and Bhulath, the groundwater has been found unsuitable for irrigation. The groundwater zoning resulting from the stacking of these thematic layers reveals that about 20% of the region has a poor quality of groundwater, mainly occupying the areas of urban agglomeration of Jalandhar, Phagwara, Hoshiarpur, parts of Sultanpur Lodhi, Mahilpur, and Balachaur blocks. In the urban cluster of Jalandhar, Phagwara, and Hoshiarpur, a high level of urbanization and industrialization is responsible for the poor quality of groundwater. The untreated discharge of industrial wastes from pharmaceutical companies is responsible for poor quality of groundwater in the Balachaur block of Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district. Further, the groundwater of the remaining 80% of the region is of better quality, but that too is vulnerable to groundwater deterioration due to various anthropogenic factors, such as higher groundwater extraction, intensive application of chemical fertilizers in the fields, and prevailing cropping pattern. The study suggests certain groundwater management strategies, viz. comprehensive planning of land-use/cover pattern, change in cropping pattern, change in prevailing agricultural practices such as water-saving irrigation, shift to rain-fed irrigation, minimum use of chemical fertilizers, promotion of organic farming, treatment of urban and industrial wastes, rainwater harvesting, artificial recharge, regular monitoring, legal restriction on water use, and energy pricing, which can be efficient in dealing with the emerging problems of groundwater resources in the region.

A hydrogeochemical study of groundwater in Chhotanagpur Plateau, India, was accomplished to evaluate general hydrochemistry, hydrogeochemical processes and quality for irrigation purposes. Samples were collected and analysed for physico-chemical parameters including pH, conductivity and major ions. The analytical results indicate that groundwater is acidic to slightly alkaline. The overall ionic concentration in the area follows the order: Ca 2+  > Mg 2+ > Na +  > K +  > NH 4 +  > Li + and HCO 3 −  > Cl −  > SO 4 2−  > NO 3 - > F −  > PO 4 − . Rock weathering, in particular carbonate and silicate weathering, determines groundwater hydrochemistry. The bivariate plot of (Ca + Mg) versus (HCO 3  + SO 4 ) reveals that the reverse ion exchange process has contributed to the hydrochemistry of the region. Piper diagram reveals that most of the groundwater samples are Ca–HCO 3 and mixed Ca–Mg–SO 4 type while some samples are Ca–Cl type. The results of the principal component analysis highlight that geological factors determine the characteristics of groundwater. However, anthropogenic activities like urban sewage discharge, chemical and pesticide discharge, and mining activities have a detrimental impact on groundwater quality. Spatial variation in the composite groundwater quality index for irrigation calculated by inverse distance weighted method reveals that the groundwater quality ranges from good to excellent in 16.5% and 83.5% of the samples, respectively. In a few samples, higher concentrations of magnesium, sodium and sulphate make the groundwater unsuitable for irrigation. The study recommends that anthropogenic activities should be carried out properly to ensure the long-term sustainability of groundwater in the area. The findings will be helpful to government officials and policy planners for proper groundwater management.