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Accurately detecting and estimating precipitation at near–real time (NRT) is of utmost importance for the early detection and monitoring of hydrometeorological hazards. The precipitation product, Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG), provides NRT 0.1° and 30-min precipitation estimates across the globe with only a 4-h latency. This study was an evaluation of the GPM IMERG version 6 level-3 early run 30-min precipitation product for precipitation events from 2014 through 2020. The purpose of this research was to identify when, where, and why GPM IMERG misidentified and failed to detect precipitation events in California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah in the United States. Precipitation events were identified based on 15-min precipitation from gauges and 30-min precipitation from the IMERG multisatellite constellation. False-positive and false-negative precipitation events were identified and analyzed to determine their characteristics. Precipitation events identified by gauges had longer duration and had higher cumulative precipitation than those identified by GPM IMERG. GPM IMERG had many false event detections during the summer months, suggesting possible virga event detection, which is when precipitation falls from a cloud but evaporates before it reaches the ground. The frequency and timing of the merged passive microwave (PMW) product and forward propagation were responsible for IMERG overestimating cumulative precipitation during some precipitation events and underestimating others. This work can inform experts that are using the GPM IMERG NRT product to be mindful of situations where GPM IMERG–estimated precipitation events may not fully resolve the hydrometeorological conditions driving these hazards.

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is an opportunistic pathogen that causes preterm birth and neonatal disease. Although GBS is known to exhibit vast diversity in virulence across strains, the mechanisms of GBS-associated pathogenesis are incompletely understood. We hypothesized that GBS strains of different genotypes would vary in their ability to elicit host inflammatory responses, and that strains associated with neonatal disease would induce different cytokine profiles than those associated with colonization. Using a multiplexed, antibody-based protein detection array, we found that production of a discrete number of inflammatory mediators by THP-1 macrophage-like cells was universally induced in response to challenge with each of five genetically distinct GBS isolates, while other responses appeared to be strain-specific. Key array responses were validated by ELISA using the initial five strains as well as ten additional strains with distinct genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. Interestingly, IL-6 was significantly elevated following infection with neonatal infection-associated sequence type (ST)-17 strains and among strains possessing capsule (cps) type III. Significant differences in production of IL1-β, IL-10 and MCP-2 were also identified across STs and cps types. These data support our hypothesis and suggest that unique host innate immune responses reflect strain-specific differences in virulence across GBS isolates. Such data might inform the development of improved diagnostic or prognostic strategies against invasive GBS infections.

Typhoons are known for causing heavy precipitation, very strong winds, and storm surges. With climate change, the occurrence, strength, and duration of typhoons are changing. Daily, weekly, and monthly precipitation from in situ stations from the NOAA Global Historical Climatological Network (GHCN) were compared in the Western North Pacific from 2000 to 2018 against two widely used datasets: NASA’s TRMM TMPA and PERSIANN-CDR. Additionally, precipitation levels during twenty-five typhoons were compared using precipitation estimates. There have been reductions in the average number of typhoons per year from 1959 to present and by month during the months of August, September, and October. Satellite-derived precipitation estimates from PERSIANN and TRMM TMPA explained approximately 50% of the variation in weekly cumulative precipitation and approximately 72% of the variation in monthly cumulative precipitation during the study period (March 2000–December 2018) when using all available stations. When analysis was completed using only stations close to the best track for the entire duration of a typhoon, 62% of the variation was explained, which is comparable to the weekly and monthly cumulative comparisons. However, most of the stations available and with sufficient data were not located in the tracks of the typhoons. It is of utmost importance to better understand typhoon events by utilizing precipitation data from satellite remote sensing in the Western North Pacific.

As the limitation of rainfall collection by ground measurement has been widely recognized, satellite-based rainfall estimate is a promising high-resolution alternative in both time and space. This study is aimed at exploring the capacity of the satellite-based rainfall product Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis (TMPA), including 3B42V7 research data and its real-time 3B42RT data, by comparing them against data from 29 ground observation stations over the lower part of the Red–Thai Binh River Basin from March 2000 to December 2016. Various statistical metrics were applied to evaluate the TMPA products. The results showed that both 3B42V7 and 3B42RT had weak relationships with daily observations, but 3B42V7 data had strong agreement on the monthly scale compared to 3B42RT. Seasonal analysis showed that 3B42V7 and 3B42RT underestimated rainfall during the dry season and overestimated rainfall during the wet season, with high bias observed for 3B42RT. In addition, detection metrics demonstrated that TMPA products could detect rainfall events in the wet season much better than in the dry season. When rainfall intensity was analyzed, both 3B42V7 and 3B42RT overestimated the no rainfall event during the dry season but underestimated these events during the wet season. Finally, based on the moderate correlation between climatology–topography characteristics and correction factors of linear-scaling (LS) approach, a set of multiple linear models was developed to reduce the error between TMPA products and the observations. The results showed that climatology–topography-based linear-scaling approach (CTLS) significantly reduced the percentage bias (PBIAS) score and moderately improved the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) score. The finding of this paper gives an overview of the capacity of TMPA products in the lower part of the Red–Thai Binh River Basin regarding water resource applications and provides a simple bias correction that can be used to improve the correctness of TMPA products.

Streptococcus agalactiae , also known as group B Streptococcus (GBS), is a common pathogen during pregnancy where infection can result in chorioamnionitis, preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), preterm labor, stillbirth, and neonatal sepsis. Mechanisms by which GBS infection results in adverse pregnancy outcomes are still incompletely understood. This study evaluated interactions between GBS and placental macrophages. The data demonstrate that in response to infection, placental macrophages release extracellular traps capable of killing GBS. Additionally, this work establishes that proteins associated with extracellular trap fibers include several matrix metalloproteinases that have been associated with chorioamnionitis. In the context of pregnancy, placental macrophage responses to bacterial infection might have beneficial and adverse consequences, including protective effects against bacterial invasion, but they may also release important mediators of membrane breakdown that could contribute to membrane rupture or preterm labor. Streptococcus agalactiae , or group B Streptococcus (GBS), is a common perinatal pathogen. GBS colonization of the vaginal mucosa during pregnancy is a risk factor for invasive infection of the fetal membranes (chorioamnionitis) and its consequences such as membrane rupture, preterm labor, stillbirth, and neonatal sepsis. Placental macrophages, or Hofbauer cells, are fetally derived macrophages present within placental and fetal membrane tissues that perform vital functions for fetal and placental development, including supporting angiogenesis, tissue remodeling, and regulation of maternal-fetal tolerance. Although placental macrophages as tissue-resident innate phagocytes are likely to engage invasive bacteria such as GBS, there is limited information regarding how these cells respond to bacterial infection. Here, we demonstrate in vitro that placental macrophages release macrophage extracellular traps (METs) in response to bacterial infection. Placental macrophage METs contain proteins, including histones, myeloperoxidase, and neutrophil elastase similar to neutrophil extracellular traps, and are capable of killing GBS cells. MET release from these cells occurs by a process that depends on the production of reactive oxygen species. Placental macrophage METs also contain matrix metalloproteases that are released in response to GBS and could contribute to fetal membrane weakening during infection. MET structures were identified within human fetal membrane tissues infected ex vivo , suggesting that placental macrophages release METs in response to bacterial infection during chorioamnionitis. IMPORTANCE Streptococcus agalactiae , also known as group B Streptococcus (GBS), is a common pathogen during pregnancy where infection can result in chorioamnionitis, preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), preterm labor, stillbirth, and neonatal sepsis. Mechanisms by which GBS infection results in adverse pregnancy outcomes are still incompletely understood. This study evaluated interactions between GBS and placental macrophages. The data demonstrate that in response to infection, placental macrophages release extracellular traps capable of killing GBS. Additionally, this work establishes that proteins associated with extracellular trap fibers include several matrix metalloproteinases that have been associated with chorioamnionitis. In the context of pregnancy, placental macrophage responses to bacterial infection might have beneficial and adverse consequences, including protective effects against bacterial invasion, but they may also release important mediators of membrane breakdown that could contribute to membrane rupture or preterm labor.

ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) proteins are small GTPases that regulate intracellular membrane trafficking and actin remodeling through tightly controlled cycles of GTP binding and hydrolysis. Arf1, a central coordinator of Golgi and endosomal transport, and Arf6, which regulates plasma membranes and endosomal dynamics, have both been implicated in late stages of the HIV-1 life cycle. However, the mechanisms by which these GTPases support viral assembly and release remain incompletely defined. Here, we provide direct evidence that both Arf1 and Arf6 are required for efficient trafficking of the HIV-1 Gag polyprotein, assembly, and virion production. Perturbation of Arf1 function using either GTP-locked (Q71L) or GDP-locked (T31N) mutants significantly reduced virus release, impaired Gag association with membrane compartments, and prevented its accumulation at the plasma membrane. Manipulation of Arf1 cycling through the GTPase-activating protein AGAP1 further demonstrated that dynamic transitions between GTP- and GDP-bound states are essential for productive Gag trafficking. Similarly, expression of a constitutively active Arf6 mutant (Q67L) misrouted Gag to intracellular membranes and markedly suppressed virion release. Importantly, disruption of Arf1 or Arf6 activity did not affect the expression, surface levels, or intracellular distribution of the host restriction factor BST-2. Together, these findings identify Arf1- and Arf6-mediated trafficking pathways as critical host determinants of HIV-1 assembly and release and establish that their functions operate independently of BST-2 antagonism.

Despite a seemingly straightforward absolute prohibition on torture as expressed in the relevant international instruments, a concerning shift towards a form of situational permissiveness with regards to wartime torture is clearly discernible. As supported by a recent survey from the International Committee of the Red Cross, perspectives are moving in a worrying direction, where a significant percentage of individuals are accepting torture as an unavoidable part of civil and international conflicts. In this article I will discuss the means by which the relevant provisions prohibiting torture in their current state may be circumvented by states, and will present arguments for strengthening and further developing these provisions. The benefits of current societal conditions and youth engagement as an impetus for development of the relevant international instruments will be emphasised.

Landslide inventories support both post‐event response and predictive model evaluation, but it remains challenging to create public, current, comprehensive and accurate landslide inventories. In response to this need, thousands of rainfall‐triggered landslides were mapped and organised within the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Cooperative Open‐Online Landslide Repository (COOLR), which contains over 11,000 landslide reports from the Global Landslide Catalogue. Recently, 22 inventories containing thousands of rainfall‐triggered landslides have been added to COOLR, which was reorganised to better accommodate large landslide inventories. All the data are available on the ‘Landslide Viewer’ web application, which also shows referenced and imported landslide inventories from other researchers. The new inventories are each connected to a landslide‐triggering rainfall event, and therefore their date of occurrence was usually known. Landslide events were found by searching through credible sources or due to an external request for support during a disaster response. In either case, high‐resolution imagery was utilised to digitise the landslides in the region. The resulting data can be used for various purposes, such as model training and validation. To demonstrate their potential, satellite precipitation was analysed with reference to the new inventories. The precipitation analysis highlights the potential of daily satellite precipitation estimates in areas with limited ground precipitation observations. Some of the heavy precipitation events were underestimated, but many were captured and could inform future landslide hazard assessment. Twenty‐two new inventories containing thousands of rainfall‐triggered landslides have been added to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Cooperative Open‐Online Landslide Repository (COOLR). The resulting data can be used for various purposes, such as model training and validation, and within this paper, a satellite precipitation analysis is demonstrated.

The development of satellite-derived datasets has greatly facilitated large-scale ecological studies, as in situ observations are spatially sparse and expensive undertakings. We tested the efficacy of using satellite sea surface temperature (SST) collected by NASA’s Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and local water temperature collected from NOAA buoys and onshore stations to estimate submerged intertidal mussel logger temperatures. Daily SST and local water temperatures were compared to mussel logger temperatures at five study sites located along the Oregon coastline. We found that satellite-derived SSTs and local water temperatures were similarly correlated to the submerged mussel logger temperatures. This finding suggests that satellite-derived SSTs may be used in conjunction with local water temperatures to understand the temporal and spatial variation of mussel logger temperatures. While there are limitations to using satellite-derived temperature for ecological studies, including issues with temporal and spatial resolution, our results are promising.

There are more than 2,000 islands across Hawaii and the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands (USAPI), where freshwater resources are heavily dependent upon rainfall. Many of the islands experience dramatic variations in precipitation during the different phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Traditionally, forecasters in the region relied on ENSO climatologies based on spatially limited in situ data to inform their seasonal precipitation outlooks. To address this gap, a unique NOAA/NASA collaborative project updated the ENSO-based rainfall climatology for the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) encompassing Hawaii and the USAPI using NOAA’s PERSIANN Climate Data Record (CDR). The PERSIANN-CDR provides a 30-yr record of global daily precipitation at 0.25° resolution (∼750 km² near the equator). This project took place over a 10- week NASA DEVELOP National Program term and resulted in a 478-page climatic reference atlas. This atlas is based on a 30-yr period from 1 January 1985 through 31 December 2014 and complements station data by offering an enhanced spatial representation of rainfall averages. Regional and EEZ-specific maps throughout the atlas illustrate the percent departure from average for each season based on the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) for different ENSO phases. To facilitate intercomparisons across locations, this percentage-based climatology was provided to regional climatologists, forecasters, and outreach experts within the region. Anomalous wet and dry maps for each ENSO phase are used by the regional constituents to better understand precipitation patterns across their regions and to produce more accurate forecasts to inform adaptation, conservation, and mitigation options for drought and f looding events.