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"Thoma, Stephen"
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Was Aristotle right about moral decision-making? Building a new empirical model of practical wisdom
This article presents the development and validation of the Short Phronesis Measure (SPM), a novel tool to assess Aristotelian phronesis (practical wisdom). Across three studies, using large, nationally representative samples from the UK and US (demographically matched to census data), we employed a systematic and rigorous methodology to examine the structure, reliability, and validity of the SPM. In Study 1a, exploratory factor analysis identified ten distinct, internally reliable components of phronesis , challenging the traditional four-component Aristotelian model. Study 1b confirmed these findings in two additional nationally representative samples from the UK and the US. In Study 1c, the SPM demonstrated strong test-retest reliability over two months. Study 2 used network analysis to uncover interrelations among the components, allowing for the creation of a new and empirically driven neo -Aristotelian model of phronesis . In Study 3, we tested criterion validity, showing phronesis correlates positively with flourishing and predicts flourishing two months later, demonstrating strong predictive validity. Phronesis also correlated with Big 6 and Dark Tetrad personality traits, moral disengagement, and Moral Foundations in expected directions. Importantly, phronesis predicted key outcomes—related to flourishing, moral disengagement, and morally relevant aspects of personality—beyond what Moral Foundations alone explained, with an average increase in predictive power of 13.7% across all outcomes. The SPM is quick to administer (15–20 minutes), making it a valuable tool for researchers and practitioners in psychology, education, and professional ethics. The introduction of the neo-Aristotelian Phronesis Model, and the identification of central phronesis components, offers actionable insights for moral psychologists and moral educators, suggesting areas of focus that could yield broad, positive effects across related traits, providing a significant contribution to both theory and practice.
Journal Article
Validity study using factor analyses on the Defining Issues Test-2 in undergraduate populations
The Defining Issues Test (DIT) aimed to measure one's moral judgment development in terms of moral reasoning. The Neo-Kohlbergian approach, which is an elaboration of Kohlbergian theory, focuses on the continuous development of postconventional moral reasoning, which constitutes the theoretical basis of the DIT. However, very few studies have directly tested the internal structure of the DIT, which would indicate its construct validity. Using the DIT-2, a later revision of the DIT, we examined whether a bi-factor model or 3-factor CFA model showed a better model fit. The Neo-Kohlbergian theory of moral judgment development, which constitutes the theoretical basis for the DIT-2, proposes that moral judgment development occurs continuously and that it can be better explained with a soft-stage model. Given these assertions, we assumed that the bi-factor model, which considers the Schema-General Moral Judgment (SGMJ), might be more consistent with Neo-Kohlbergian theory. We analyzed a large dataset collected from undergraduate students. We performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) via weighted least squares. A 3-factor CFA based on the DIT-2 manual and a bi-factor model were compared for model fit. The three factors in the 3-factor CFA were labeled as moral development schemas in Neo-Kohlbergian theory (i.e., personal interests, maintaining norms, and postconventional schemas). The bi-factor model included the SGMJ in addition to the three factors. In general, the bi-factor model showed a better model fit compared with the 3-factor CFA model although both models reported acceptable model fit indices. We found that the DIT-2 scale is a valid measure of the internal structure of moral reasoning development using both CFA and bi-factor models. In addition, we conclude that the soft-stage model, posited by the Neo-Kohlbergian approach to moral judgment development, can be better supported with the bi-factor model that was tested in the present study.
Journal Article
Young adults’ empathic responses to others in psychological pain as compared to physical pain: does prior experience of pain matter?
Previous studies have demonstrated a link between prior experience of physical pain and empathic response within similar settings. However, much less is known about emotional hurt derived from psychologically painful situations and the expression of empathy, despite evidence that different types of pain can be experienced in similar ways. Using qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the current paper explored the relationship between college students’ (mostly female) experience with psychological pain and level of empathy evoked by pictures of strangers experiencing physical and psychological pain. Findings from all three studies indicated similar empathic reactions (in the form of pain perception, empathic concern, perspective taking, and intention to help) toward physical and psychological pain. However, participants’ feelings after observing physical and psychological pain were related to their prior similar painful experiences. This suggests that similar prior psychological painful experience can impact affective empathy when observing another in psychological pain, but not cognitive empathy. Implication for research on empathy evoked by observing psychological pain and the influence of similar past painful experiences are discussed.
Journal Article
Age, gender, and educational level predict emotional but not cognitive empathy in farsi-speaking iranians
The affective and cognitive components of empathy have been extensively researched in various disciplines. However, little is known about how these components are influenced by individual differences in maturation or development. Acknowledging such a gap in the literature, the current study examined how individual differences (i.e., age, gender, and education) facilitate the development of dispositional empathy. Therefore, to meet the goals of this study, the Farsi version of three empathy questionnaires (i.e., Interpersonal Reactivity Index, Questionnaire Measurement of Emotional Empathy, and Empathy Quotient) were distributed among Farsi-speakers living inside or outside mainland Iran. The analysis of data obtained from 510 participants showed that age, educational level, and gender accounted for the changes in affective empathy, without any significant impact on cognitive empathy. The current study is the first study investigating developmental changes in self-report empathy score in a population of Farsi-speaking Iranians.
Journal Article
Adolescent moral judgement: A study of UK secondary school pupils
Despite a recent world-wide upsurge of academic interest in moral and character education, little is known about pupils' character development in schools, especially in the UK context. The authors used a version of the Intermediate Concept Measure for Adolescents, involving dilemmas, to assess an important component of character—moral judgement—among 4053 pupils aged 14-15. Data were generated in 33 UK schools of varying types between February 2013 and June 2014. Results showed that compared with US samples, the pupils' scores were, on average, low, suggestive of tendencies towards 'self-interest', 'not getting involved' and 'conformity/loyalty to friends'. Judgements varied by subscales assessing 'action' and 'justification' choices; pupils more successfully identified good actions than good justifications, but generally struggled more to successfully identify poor actions and poor justifications. Highest scores were for a dilemma emphasising 'self-discipline' and lowest for 'honesty', with 'courage' in between. Overall average results were significantly and positively associated with being female, having (and practising) a religion and doing specific extra-curricular activities. Differences in schools were also noted, although the kinds of school (e.g. public/private, religious/secular) were unrelated to student scores.
Journal Article
A Habit of Social Action: Understanding the Factors Associated with Adolescents Who Have Made a Habit of Helping Others
Youth social action—activities such as volunteering, campaigning, and fundraising—has gained traction in the UK and internationally in recent years as governments have supported initiatives to encourage adolescents to develop a 'habit' of social action. However, there is not convincing evidence on what a habit of social action is. This study involved a questionnaire with 4518 16-20-year-olds in the UK and finds that moral and civic virtue identity, perceived behavioural control, goal direction, and subjective norms are related to a habit of youth social action. A key contribution of this study is the development and application of a new measure of virtue identity—the Virtue Identity Measure—to which we pay particular attention in this article.
Journal Article
Individual and School Correlates of DIT-2 Scores Using a Multilevel Modeling and Data Mining Analysis
Moral reasoning was investigated with respect to individual characteristics (i.e., education level, political orientation and sex) and school-related (i.e., university/college) factors using multilevel modeling and data mining analysis. We used the multilevel modeling to detect school effects on moral reasoning as well as individual effects for 16,334 students representing 79 different higher education institutions across the U.S. The school-related factors, such as the racial composition, student–faculty ratio, average SAT score, institution type, institutions’ geographical region, frequencies of morally relevant words in college course catalog, college mission and value statements were collected through website searches. Data mining analysis was utilized to extract and calculate the frequencies of morally relevant words from the website content. There were significant effects for the individual characteristic of political orientation. Additionally, all school-related factors were significant. Only main effects were observed for some school-related factors (i.e., average SAT score, institution type, frequency of morally relevant words in mission statements, value statements and course catalogs). For other school-related factors (i.e., the region, student–faculty ratio and racial composition), main effects were also observed; however, these effects were particularly illuminating given their interactions with political orientation. Implications for educational communities are discussed.
Journal Article
Chronic sodium nitrite therapy augments ischemia-induced angiogenesis and arteriogenesis
Chronic tissue ischemia due to defective vascular perfusion is a hallmark feature of peripheral artery disease for which minimal therapeutic options exist. We have reported that sodium nitrite therapy exerts cytoprotective effects against acute ischemia/reperfusion injury in both heart and liver, consistent with the model of bioactive NO formation from nitrite during ischemic stress. Here, we test the hypothesis that chronic sodium nitrite therapy can selectively augment angiogenic activity and tissue perfusion in the murine hind-limb ischemia model. Various therapeutic doses (8.25-3,300 μg/kg) of sodium nitrite or PBS were administered. Sodium nitrite significantly restored ischemic hind-limb blood flow in a time-dependent manner, with low-dose sodium nitrite being most effective. Nitrite therapy significantly increased ischemic limb vascular density and stimulated endothelial cell proliferation. Remarkably, the effects of sodium nitrite therapy were evident within 3 days of the ischemic insult demonstrating the potency and efficacy of chronic sodium nitrite therapy. Sodium nitrite therapy also increased ischemic tissue nitrite and NO metabolites compared to nonischemic limbs. Use of the NO scavenger carboxy PTIO completely abolished sodium nitrite-dependent ischemic tissue blood flow and angiogenic activity consistent with nitrite reduction to NO being the proangiogenic mechanism. These data demonstrate that chronic sodium nitrite therapy is a recently discovered therapeutic treatment for peripheral artery disease and critical limb ischemia.
Journal Article
The Challenge of Measuring Epistemic Beliefs: An Analysis of Three Self-Report Instruments
Epistemic beliefs are notoriously difficult to measure with self-report instruments. In this study, the authors used large samples to assess the factor structure and internal consistency of 3 self-report measures of domain-general epistemic beliefs to draw conclusions about the trustworthiness of findings reported in the literature. College students completed the Epistemological Questionnaire (EQ; M. Schommer, 1990; N = 935); the Epistemic Beliefs Inventory (EBI; G. Schraw, L. D. Bendixen, & M. E. Dunkle, 2002; N = 795); and the Epistemological Beliefs Survey (EBS; P. Wood & C. Kardash, 2002; N = 795). Exploratory factor analyses, confirmatory factor analyses, and internal consistency estimates indicated psychometric problems with each of the 3 instruments. The authors discuss challenges in conceptualizing and measuring personal epistemology.
Journal Article