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Background Livelihood diversification plays a decisive role for the reduction of poverty, food insecurity and to improve the welfare of rural communities. However, inadequate research attention has been given to explore the determinants of livelihood diversification strategies in resettlement areas of Ethiopia. This study attempts to investigate determinants of livelihood diversification strategies among the resettler households in Chewaka district of Ethiopia. Methods The study utilized both primary and secondary data which are qualitative and quantitative in their nature. Through multistage sampling procedure, a total of 384 households were selected from seven sample kebeles of Chewaka district. Data were collected using interview schedule, focus group discussions and field observations. The collected data were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Descriptive and inferential statistics along with multinomial logit model have been employed to analyze the data. Results The results showed that agriculture (43.2%), agriculture plus non-farm (25.5%), agriculture plus off-farm (19.3%) and a combination of agriculture plus non-farm plus off-farm (12%) activities are the most pertinent livelihood strategies in the study area. It was found that agriculture has a leading contribution to the total households’ income (72.5%) followed by non-farm (20%) and off-farm activities (7.5%). Multinomial logit model result revealed that land holding size, educational status, livestock holding, sex, age, market distance, credit access, annual income, access to training and household sizes were the major determinants of livelihood diversification strategies. Moreover, poor infrastructural development, lack of working capital, absence of technical support, inadequate skill training and lack of awareness are constraints to livelihood diversification in the area. Conclusions The study concludes that agricultural sector alone cannot be relied upon as the core activity for rural households and as a means of reducing poverty, achieving food security and improving livelihoods in the study area. Thus, a comprehensive development plan that enhances successful livelihood diversification is found to be imperative and most urgent. Policies and actions directed towards improving livelihood of the resettlers’ communities should focus on expanding rural infrastructures, enhancing awareness creation activities and cooperation of stakeholders to bring sustainable livelihood outcome in the area.

BackgroundResettlement has been conceived as a viable solution to the continual impoverishment and destitution of Ethiopian rural communities. However, it has considerable impacts on natural resources of the environment at destination areas. This study was carried out to evaluate impact of resettlement scheme on vegetation cover and its implications on conservation in Chewaka district of Ethiopia.MethodsThe study utilized ArcGIS10.3, ERDAS Imagine 9.1, Landsat imageries of 2000, 2009, 2018 and socio-economic data to analyze the LULC of the district. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was employed to detect vegetation cover changes of the area. The study was conducted on the seven kebeles of Chewaka district and the total households of the sample kebeles are 3340. Through multistage sampling procedure a total of 384 households were selected from sample kebeles. Data were collected using questionnaires, GPS, interviews, focus group discussions and field observations. The collected data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively.ResultsThe results showed that Chewaka district has undergone substantial LULC change since population resettlement in the area. A rapid reduction of woodland (34.6%), forest (59.9%), grassland (50.5%) and bareland (46.8%) took place between 2000 and 2018, while built-up areas and cultivated lands have expanded at an average rate of 90.7 and 1515.7 ha/year respectively. The results of NDVI revealed that the extent of dense and sparse vegetation cover have decreased by 26.1% and 20.6% respectively, whereas non-vegetation cover has increased by 14,340.2 ha during the study period. It was found that rapid population growth following resettlement program, farmland and settlement expansion, deforestation, human-induced forest fire, lack of land use plan, unwise utilization and low management practices were the major factors that underpin the observed changes in the area.ConclusionsResettlement scheme has resulted in the depletion and dynamics of vegetation cover in Chewaka district. Therefore, the study suggests urgent attention on conservation of the remaining vegetation resources for sustainable utilization.

Landslide hazards significantly threaten rural communities, impacting various aspects of livelihoods, including food security. The Gamo Highlands in southern Ethiopia is vulnerable to landslide hazards. Therefore, this research aims to investigate the effect of landslide hazards on rural households’ food security status in the Gacho Baba district, Gamo Highlands, southern Ethiopia. The study employed a mixed approach, to collect and analyze data collected from 289 households, community leaders, and early warning and food security experts. Purposive and multistage sampling techniques were deployed. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), Food Consumption Score (FCS), and Reducing Coping Strategies Index (RCSI) were food in/security indicators used. The HFIAS reveals significant worries regarding stable access and availability of food, with 62% of sample households categorized as mildly, moderately, and severely food-insecure. FCS indicates prevalent challenges in achieving adequate food consumption levels among the surveyed households, with a significant portion falling into the poor consumption category (51.3%). while the investigation of coping strategies using RCSI categorized (53.3%) of study samples into high coping strategies. The study also reveals varying levels of awareness and preparedness among households, with a significant proportion expressing uncertainty about landslide occurrence and prevention mechanisms. The findings underscore the need for targeted educational and awareness initiatives, as well as comprehensive risk reduction strategies, to enhance household resilience and safeguard food security in landslide-prone areas.

Food insecurity is a global problem in both urban and rural areas. However, urban food security in Ethiopia has received little attention. Therefore, this study aims to identify the determinants of urban household vulnerability to food insecurity in selected towns in Southern Ethiopia. The study employed a mixed research design, incorporating a household survey, key informant interviews, and focus-group discussions. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 310 survey households. Data were collected using a pretested structured questionnaire. The household vulnerability to food insecurity indicator was used to assess the level of vulnerability to food insecurity. An ordered logit model was used to identify the determinants of vulnerability to food insecurity in the urban setup. The results showed 41.3% of households in the study to be highly vulnerable to food insecurity, 48.3% moderately vulnerable, and 10.6% not vulnerable. Among the 16 variables, household ownership of houses, health status, urban agriculture, socio-cultural practices, asset ownership, age, and average monthly income were found to be significant in determining the vulnerability to food insecurity. The study recommended that food security interventions demand due attention, particularly for low-income urban households benefit from the urban productive safety net program. Policymakers and development professionals should implement a multiple approach to address urban food insecurity in Ethiopia. This should include targeted interventions beyond urban productive safety net program for highly vulnerable households.

Agriculture in Ethiopia is highly dictated by spatial patterns and temporal distributions of climate variables. The analysis of these climate variables is crucial for understanding the impacts on agricultural productivity. This study aimed to analyze spatiotemporal variability and trends of intra-seasonal rainfall and temperature using site-specific daily data from the Ethiopian Meteorology Institute (1992–2021). Standardized methods explore variability, while Mann–Kendall tests identify trends, using the Modified version for data with autocorrelation. Inverse Distance Weighted interpolation was employed for spatial analysis of rainfall, length of growing season, and temperature. The findings identified that Kiremt dominated the mono-modal rainfall pattern, contributing 72%-86% of total annual rainfall. The study found that the season typically begins early on June 13 in Adiszemen, and July 6 in Arbgebiya and ends between October 6 and October 26. The duration of the season varied across locations, averaging 95 days at Ebenat and 148 days at Adiszemen. The seasonal rainfall anomaly index shows identical patterns between ENSO episodes and seasonal rainfall. These findings inform decision-making and adaptation strategies for ENSO-driven rainfall variability. Temperatures showed predictable seasonal patterns, but have significantly increased over time, with maximum and minimum temperatures rising 0.014 °C to 0.421 °C and 0.027 °C to 0.485 °C per year respectively. This warming trend is negatively impacting water, crops, and livestock, requiring adaptation measures to build regional resilience. This study underscores the critical impact of climate variability on agriculture in the study area. The findings reveal shifts in rainfall patterns and temperature trends, providing essential insights for adapting agricultural practices.

Landslides are among the current prominent natural hazards affecting rural households’ livelihood strategies in most districts of the Gamo Highlands. This study investigates the effect of landslide hazards on rural household-level livelihood strategies in the Gacho Baba district, Gamo Highlands, southern Ethiopia. The concurrent embedded mixed-methods research design was employed to collect and analyze data from a statistically determined sample of 289 households, community leaders, and disaster experts. At the same time, survey questionnaires, interviews, and field observations became data collection tools. Multistage sampling techniques were used to select the study area and sample population. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the study outcomes. The survey showed that farmers in the study area were practicing four livelihood strategies: on-farm only, on-farm plus off-farm, on-farm plus non-farm, and on-farm plus off-farm plus non-farm. 56% of the sampled households were engaged in on-farm activity only. As to the ANOVA (F-test) result, there is no mean difference between sample villages in livelihood strategies diversification. The result of multinomial logistic regression indicated that total livestock size, age of household head, family size, educational status of household head, agricultural land size, market distance, total income, access to credit, and saving are the identified determinants of diversifying the livelihood strategies. The households living in landslide-hazard-prone areas have acknowledged 24% place identity, 25% place dependency, 25% place attachment, and 26% the economic reasons for their exposure to the hazard. Besides, all the respondents agreed that the landslide-hazard-caused disaster is a real threat to livelihoods across the areas. Hence, the findings call for the commitment of various stakeholders and policymakers to tackle the adverse effects of landslide hazards on livelihoods and the resultant disasters in the face of changing climates.

Dry spells and rainfall variability significantly impact rain-fed agriculture in Ethiopia, necessitating targeted adaptation strategies. This study used rainfall data from Ethiopia's Meteorological Institute (1992–2021) to evaluate the likelihood of rainfall and dry spells lasting more than 7, 10, 15, and 20 days in northwestern Ethiopia. Markov chain modeling assessed the probabilities of these events, while Modified Mann–Kendall tests examined trends in dry days at a significance level of P < 0.05. The area has a Kiremt -dominated monomodal rain, with 80–100% rainfall probability following dry days in July–August. June (40–67%) and September (37–60%) experienced high dry days with moderate to high variability (CV: 26–45%), underscoring the need for monitoring dry day risks during planting and crop maturation. In contrast, July (10–19%) and August (10–29%) had lower frequencies of dry days. The Belg (77–89%) and Bega (79–95%) seasons showed high dry day frequencies with low variability, indicating that rain-fed agriculture is impractical during these times. Trend analysis revealed significant increases in dry days at Ebenat and decreases at Simada, with most stations showing rising dry day patterns. Dry spell analysis found minimal (0–10%) likelihood during Kiremt , but a 100% risk from late September to February. Spatial analysis revealed a high risk of extended dry spells: 20–40% in August, 40–60% in July, 100% in October, and 75–100% in September-June. May has a 60–80% chance of a 7-day dry spell, likely delaying the growing season to June and reducing yields for rain-fed crops, suggesting targeted interventions, like using drought-tolerant crops or mitigation strategies. Article Highlights Rainfall Chances and Patterns in the study area Trends and Frequency of Dry Days Dry spell probability and Farming Risks

There is little debate about the relationship between rising fertility and declining income. Rapid population growth can have serious implications for people's standard of living-their incomes, savings, health, education, and general well-being. Thus, the objective of this study is to analyze the impacts of household sizes on rural farm households' savings, consumption spending, and financial capacity to cover the expenses of children's education and the health of household members. 346 rural farm household heads took part in the study, which used a multistage sample technique. Along with the survey results, six focus group discussions, 27 key informant interviews, and personal observations were done. The outcomes showed that the savings-to-income ratios of rural households decreased with increasing household size, whereas consumption-to-income ratios increased due to a portion of the income that was not saved being spent on supporting the consumption demands of the additional household member. The MANOVA post hoc analysis also revealed that the large household size group's average yearly savings were significantly lower than the small household size group, whereas consumption expenses grew with increasing household size. Furthermore, ordinal logistic regressions show that increasing household size without increasing income diminishes rural farm households' existing financial capacity to afford the expenditures of their children's education and healthcare for household members. Thus, it is preferable to advocate that rural households have access to quality reproductive health-care services, like safe and effective family planning alternatives, and that households strive to diversify their income sources to promote savings.

Food insecurity becomes severe in areas where agriculture is households' sole income source. Accordingly, this study looked into food security and the role of livelihood diversification in the Damot Woyde district in Southern Ethiopia. Data were gathered using a structured survey questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informants interview and field observation. The household food balance model (HFBM) and HFIAS (household food insecurity access scale) methods were employed to assess food security (availability and access respectively). The data was analyzed using Simpson's index of diversity, binary logistic regression, multiple linear regression, and the independent sample t-test. The findings revealed that 69% of Woina Dega and 77% of Kolla (HFBM) households were food insecure. HFIAS also showed that only 22.2% of Woina Dega and 11.5% of Kolla households have been food secure. But in other, households, 26.6% of Woina Dega and 36% of Kolla were severely food insecure. Both the binary logistic and linear regression results indicated that livelihood diversification has a positive and important influence on food security in the study area. Hence, we posit that livelihood income diversification lessens the threats of food shortages in rural farm households.

Climate change and variability significantly affects rural livelihoods in rain-fed agricultural regions like Ethiopia, highlighting the need for localized research to enhance evidence-based decision-making. This study evaluated livelihood vulnerability to climate-related risks in various livelihood zones, Ebenat District in northwestern Ethiopia. Daily rainfall and temperature data from the Ethiopian Meteorology Institute (1992–2021) were analyzed using a modified Mann-Kendall trend test to assess season duration, rainfall anomalies, and temperature trends, providing insights into climate risks across livelihood zones. A mixed-methods design was employed to analyze data from 382 farm households, using the Composite Livelihood Index (CLI) and the Livelihood Vulnerability Index based on IPCC frameworks (LVI-IPCC). The results show that the Tekeze lowland livelihood zone faces the highest frequency of droughts and a short growing season of 98 days. Temperatures are rising in these zones, with significant increases of 0.011 and 0.035 °C/ year at P  < 0.05 for maximum and minimum temperatures in Tekeze lowland, indicating its high exposure. The findings identified varying levels of vulnerability across the studied zones. The Tekeze lowland was found to be the most vulnerable (0.61), characterized by high exposure (0.67) to extreme climate events such as drought and flooding, as well as significant seasonal variability. Sensitivity (0.52) in this region is driven by challenges related to water, health, and food security, while adaptive capacity remains moderate (0.47), constrained by low crop diversification and limited access to agricultural technology. In contrast, the Tana Zuria zone exhibited moderate vulnerability (0.46) and a higher adaptive capacity (0.53), whereas the northeastern zone showed high vulnerability (0.51) linked to seasonal and intra-seasonal climate variability. To address these challenges, targeted interventions are essential to enhance adaptive capacities through improved agricultural technologies and climate information access, while engaging vulnerable groups in awareness initiatives. Future research should further explore factors influencing adaptive strategies within these communities.