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Plants are under constant attack from pathogens and herbivorous insects. To protect and defend themselves, plants evolved a multi-layered surveillance system, known as the innate immune system. Plants sense their encounters upon perception of conserved microbial structures and damage-associated patterns using cell-surface and intracellular immune receptors. Plant lectins and proteins with one or more lectin domains represent a major part of these receptors. The whole group of plant lectins comprises an elaborate collection of proteins capable of recognizing and interacting with specific carbohydrate structures, either originating from the invading organisms or from damaged plant cell wall structures. Due to the vast diversity in protein structures, carbohydrate recognition domains and glycan binding specificities, plant lectins constitute a very diverse protein superfamily. In the last decade, new types of nucleocytoplasmic plant lectins have been identified and characterized, in particular lectins expressed inside the nucleus and the cytoplasm of plant cells often as part of a specific plant response upon exposure to different stress factors or changing environmental conditions. In this review, we provide an overview on plant lectin motifs used in the constant battle against pathogens and predators during plant defenses.

Stress granules are cytoplasmic compartments, which serve as mRNA storage units during stress, therefore regulating translation. The Arabidopsis thaliana lectin ArathEULS3 has been widely described as a stress inducible gene. This study aimed to examine in detail the localization of ArathEULS3 lectin in normal and stressed cells. Colocalization experiments revealed that the nucleo-cytoplasmic lectin ArathEULS3 relocates to stress granules after stress. The ArathEULS3 sequence encodes a protein with a EUL lectin domain and an N-terminal domain with unknown structure and function. Bioinformatics analyses showed that the N-terminal domain sequence contains intrinsically disordered regions and likely does not exhibit a stable protein fold. Plasmolysis experiments indicated that ArathEULS3 also localizes to the apoplast, suggesting that this protein might follow an unconventional route for secretion. As part of our efforts we also investigated the interactome of ArathEULS3 and identified several putative interaction partners important for the protein translation process.

Background A small group of F-box proteins consisting of a conserved F-box domain linked to a domain homologous to the glycan-binding protein has been identified within the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana . Previously, the so-called F-box-Nictaba protein, encoded by the gene At2g02360 , was shown to be a functional lectin which binds N- acetyllactosamine structures. Here, we present a detailed qRT-PCR expression analysis of F-box-Nictaba in Arabidopsis plants upon different stresses and hormone treatments. Results Expression of the F-box-Nictaba gene was enhanced after plant treatment with salicylic acid and after plant infection with the virulent Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 ( Pst DC3000). β-glucuronidase histochemical staining of transgenic Arabidopsis plants displayed preferential activity of the At2g02360 promoter in trichomes present on young rosette leaves. qRT-PCR analyses confirmed high expression of F-box-Nictaba in leaf trichomes. A. thaliana plants overexpressing the gene showed less disease symptoms after Pst DC3000 infection with reduced bacterial colonization compared to infected wild type and F-box-Nictaba knock-out plants. Conclusions Our data show that the Arabidopsis F-box-Nictaba gene is a stress-inducible gene responsive to SA, bacterial infection and heat stress, and is involved in salicylic acid related plant defense responses. This knowledge enriched our understanding of the physiological importance of F-box-Nictaba, and can be used to create plants with better performance in changing environmental conditions.

Ammonia (NH3) emissions in the atmosphere have increased substantially over the past decades, largely because of intensive livestock production and use of fertilizers. As a short-lived species, NH3 is highly variable in the atmosphere and its concentration is generally small, except near local sources. While ground-based measurements are possible, they are challenging and sparse. Advanced infrared sounders in orbit have recently demonstrated their capability to measure NH3, offering a new tool to refine global and regional budgets. In this paper we describe an improved retrieval scheme of NH3 total columns from the measurements of the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI). It exploits the hyperspectral character of this instrument by using an extended spectral range (800–1200 cm−1) where NH3 is optically active. This scheme consists of the calculation of a dimensionless spectral index from the IASI level1C radiances, which is subsequently converted to a total NH3 column using look-up tables built from forward radiative transfer model simulations. We show how to retrieve the NH3 total columns from IASI quasi-globally and twice daily above both land and sea without large computational resources and with an improved detection limit. The retrieval also includes error characterization of the retrieved columns. Five years of IASI measurements (1 November 2007 to 31 October 2012) have been processed to acquire the first global and multiple-year data set of NH3 total columns, which are evaluated and compared to similar products from other retrieval methods. Spatial distributions from the five years data set are provided and analyzed at global and regional scales. In particular, we show the ability of this method to identify smaller emission sources than those previously reported, as well as transport patterns over the ocean. The five-year time series is further examined in terms of seasonality and interannual variability (in particular as a function of fire activity) separately for the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

There is an ongoing forensic and security need for rapid, on-scene, easy-to-use, non-invasive chemical identification of intact energetic materials at pre-explosion crime scenes. Recent technological advances in instrument miniaturization, wireless transfer and cloud storage of digital data, and multivariate data analysis have created new and very promising options for the use of near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in forensic science. This study shows that in addition to drugs of abuse, portable NIR spectroscopy with multivariate data analysis also offers excellent opportunities to identify intact energetic materials and mixtures. NIR is able to characterize a broad range of chemicals of interest in forensic explosive investigations, covering both organic and inorganic compounds. NIR characterization of actual forensic casework samples convincingly shows that this technique can handle the chemical diversity encountered in forensic explosive investigations. The detailed chemical information contained in the 1350–2550 nm NIR reflectance spectrum allows for correct compound identification within a given class of energetic materials, including nitro-aromatics, nitro-amines, nitrate esters, and peroxides. In addition, the detailed characterization of mixtures of energetic materials, such as plastic formulations containing PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate) and RDX (trinitro triazinane), is feasible. The results presented illustrate that the NIR spectra of energetic compounds and mixtures are sufficiently selective to prevent false-positive results for a broad range of food-related products, household chemicals, raw materials used for the production of home-made explosives, drugs of abuse, and products that are sometimes used to create hoax improvised explosive devices. However, for frequently encountered pyrotechnic mixtures, such as black powder, flash powder, and smokeless powder, and some basic inorganic raw materials, the application of NIR spectroscopy remains challenging. Another challenge is presented by casework samples of contaminated, aged, and degraded energetic materials or poor-quality HMEs (home-made explosives), for which the spectral signature deviates significantly from the reference spectra, potentially leading to false-negative outcomes.

Increased antibiotic resistance has catalyzed the research on new antibacterial molecules and alternative strategies, such as the application of beneficial bacteria. Since lectin molecules have unique sugar-recognizing capacities, and pathogens are often decorated with sugars that affect their survival and infectivity, we explored whether lectins from the probiotic strain Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG have antipathogenic properties. The genome sequence of L. rhamnosus GG was screened for the presence of lectin-like proteins. Two genes, LGG_RS02780 and LGG_RS02750, encoding for polypeptides with an N-terminal conserved L-type lectin domain were detected and designated Llp1 (lectin-like protein 1) and Llp2. The capacity of Llp1 and Llp2 to inhibit biofilm formation of various pathogens was investigated. Sugar specificity was determined by Sepharose beads assays and glycan array screening. The isolated lectin domains of Llp1 and Llp2 possess pronounced inhibitory activity against biofilm formation by various pathogens, including clinical Salmonella species and uropathogenic E. coli, with Llp2 being more active than Llp1. In addition, sugar binding assays with Llp1 and Llp2 indicate specificity for complex glycans. Both proteins are also involved in the adhesion capacity of L. rhamnosus GG to gastrointestinal and vaginal epithelial cells. Lectins isolated from or expressed by beneficial lactobacilli could be considered promising bio-active ingredients for improved prophylaxis of urogenital and gastrointestinal infections.

We present a retrieval method for ammonia (NH3) total columns from ground-based Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) observations. Observations from Bremen (53.10° N, 8.85° E), Lauder (45.04° S, 169.68° E), Réunion (20.9° S, 55.50° E) and Jungfraujoch (46.55° N, 7.98° E) were used to illustrate the capabilities of the method. NH3 mean total columns ranging 3 orders of magnitude were obtained, with higher values at Bremen (mean of 13.47 × 1015 molecules cm−2) and lower values at Jungfraujoch (mean of 0.18 × 1015 molecules cm−2). In conditions with high surface concentrations of ammonia, as in Bremen, it is possible to retrieve information on the vertical gradient, as two layers can be distinguished. The retrieval there is most sensitive to ammonia in the planetary boundary layer, where the trace gas concentration is highest. For conditions with low concentrations, only the total column can be retrieved. Combining the systematic and random errors we have a mean total error of 26 % for all spectra measured at Bremen (number of spectra (N) = 554), 30 % for all spectra from Lauder (N = 2412), 25 % for spectra from Réunion (N = 1262) and 34 % for spectra measured at Jungfraujoch (N = 2702). The error is dominated by the systematic uncertainties in the spectroscopy parameters. Station-specific seasonal cycles were found to be consistent with known seasonal cycles of the dominant ammonia sources in the station surroundings. The developed retrieval methodology from FTIR instruments provides a new way of obtaining highly time-resolved measurements of ammonia burdens. FTIR-NH3 observations will be useful for understanding the dynamics of ammonia concentrations in the atmosphere and for satellite and model validation. It will also provide additional information to constrain the global ammonia budget.

Glycosylation plays an important role in several types of biological and biochemical recognition processes, ranging from fertilisation and development to pathological events, such as infection, allergy, inflammation or cancer. [...]tunicamycin could be used in glycotherapy against breast cancer in the future. Because of its association with tumour development, LacdiNAc is a potentially suitable tumour marker for some types of cancer.

Plant development represents a continuous process in which the plant undergoes morphological, (epi)genetic and metabolic changes. Starting from pollination, seed maturation and germination, the plant continues to grow and develops specialized organs to survive, thrive and generate offspring. The development of plants and the interplay with its environment are highly linked to glycosylation of proteins and lipids as well as metabolism and signaling of sugars. Although the involvement of these protein modifications and sugars is well-studied, there is still a long road ahead to profoundly comprehend their nature, significance, importance for plant development and the interplay with stress responses. This review, approached from the plants’ perspective, aims to focus on some key findings highlighting the importance of glycosylation and sugar signaling for plant development.

We use in situ observations from the Interagency Monitoring of PROtected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) network, the Midwest Ammonia Monitoring Project, 11 surface site campaigns as well as Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI) satellite measurements with the GEOS-Chem model to investigate inorganic aerosol loading and atmospheric ammonia concentrations over the United States. IASI observations suggest that current ammonia emissions are underestimated in California and in the springtime in the Midwest. In California this underestimate likely drives the underestimate in nitrate formation in the GEOS-Chem model. However in the remaining continental United States we find that the nitrate simulation is biased high (normalized mean bias > = 1.0) year-round, except in Spring (due to the underestimate in ammonia in this season). None of the uncertainties in precursor emissions, the uptake efficiency of N2O5 on aerosols, OH concentrations, the reaction rate for the formation of nitric acid, or the dry deposition velocity of nitric acid are able to explain this bias. We find that reducing nitric acid concentrations to 75% of their simulated values corrects the bias in nitrate (as well as ammonium) in the US. However the mechanism for this potential reduction is unclear and may be a combination of errors in chemistry, deposition and sub-grid near-surface gradients. This \"updated\" simulation reproduces PM and ammonia loading and captures the strong seasonal and spatial gradients in gas-particle partitioning across the United States. We estimate that nitrogen makes up 15−35% of inorganic fine PM mass over the US, and that this fraction is likely to increase in the coming decade, both with decreases in sulfur emissions and increases in ammonia emissions.