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Eosinophils are often considered as the pathologic landmark of chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP). Many studies emphasize their pivotal role in mucosal remodeling by their innate action via cytotoxic proteins degranulation. Eosinophil nasal recruitment from the bloodstream through endothelium diapedeses requires the intricate action between the nasal epithelium, epithelial cell-activated type 2 innate lymphoid cells, and adaptive immune cells secreting alarmins, cytokines, and specific chemokines. This immune pathway refers to a T-helper 2 (T2)-driven lymphocyte response, often considered as the main inflammatory process in CRSwNP in western countries. The release of T2 cytokines, among which interleukin (IL)-4, IL-5, and IL-13, fundamentally contributes to this immune response. New biologic agents capable of blocking T2 cytokines have been developed in the field of eosinophil-associated diseases, shifting the paradigm of treatment for patients with CRSwNP. The first part of this review describes each step of the eosinophil journey from hematopoietic stem cell maturation to nasal mucosa homing. The different eosinophil activation processes and their inflammatory functions are also described. This is followed by a discussion on currently available biologic therapies in CRSwNP with a specific focus on eosinophilic response. Beyond an eosinophil-blocking strategy, a cluster analysis of specific T2 biomarkers could be required to best predict the response to such biologic therapies in the future.

Objectives: To review the current knowledge regarding the involvement of human papilloma virus (HPV) infection and the immune system in the development of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Methods: An electronic literature search was conducted to identify articles published between 1990 and 2019 pertaining to tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) in HNSCC using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Issues of clinical relevance, including tumor location, the number of tumor samples, the inclusion of additional specimens (dysplastic or normal mucosa), tumor size, methods used for HPV detection, relationship between antigen expression and patient characteristics (age, gender, smoking, alcohol consumption, etc.), and prognostic data (overall survival (OS) and recurrence-free survival (RFS)) were assessed by four blinded investigators. Results: The search identified 335 relevant studies, of which 41 met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 7 studies focused on the peripheral blood immune cell concentration in patients with HNSCC according to HPV status, and 36 studies investigated TICs in the intraepithelial and/or stromal compartment(s) according to HPV status. The immune cells studied were CD8+ T cells (N = 19), CD4+ T cells (N = 7), regulatory T cells (Tregs, N = 15), macrophages (N = 13), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs, N = 4), and Langerhans cells (LCs, N = 2). Conclusions: Irrespective of tumor location, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells appear to play a key role in the development of HPV−related HNSCC, and their infiltration is likely associated with a significant impact on OS and RFS. To date, the roles and prognostic value of Tregs, macrophages, DCs and MDSCs remain unclear.