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The search for a root economics spectrum (RES) has been sparked by recent interest in trait-based plant ecology. By analogy with the one-dimensional leaf economics spectrum (LES), fine-root traits are hypothesised to match leaf traits which are coordinated along one axis from resource acquisitive to conservative traits. However, our literature review and meta-level analysis reveal no consistent evidence of an RES mirroring an LES. Instead the RES appears to be multidimensional. We discuss three fundamental differences contributing to the discrepancy between these spectra. First, root traits are simultaneously constrained by various environmental drivers not necessarily related to resource uptake. Second, above- and belowground traits cannot be considered analogues, because they function differently and might not be related to resource uptake in a similar manner. Third, mycorrhizal interactions may offset selection for an RES. Understanding and explaining the belowground mechanisms and trade-offs that drive variation in root traits, resource acquisition and plant performance across species, thus requires a fundamentally different approach than applied aboveground. We therefore call for studies that can functionally incorporate the root traits involved in resource uptake, the complex soil environment and the various soil resource uptake mechanisms – particularly the mycorrhizal pathway – in a multidimensional root trait framework.

Background and aims Competition is an important force shaping plant communities. Here we test the hypothesis that high overall root length density and selective root placement in nutrient patches, as two alternative strategies, confer competitive advantage in species mixtures. Methods We performed a full-factorial pairwise competition experiment with eight grassland species in soil with homogeneously distributed nutrients, or with nutrients concentrated in a single patch. We measured species-specific relative growth rate, root length density, selective root placement, and ion uptake rates of all species in monocultures and in mixtures. Results Grasses showed higher specific root length overall and forbs a higher selective root placement in the nutrient patch. However, relative growth rate and root length density were more strongly related to competitive ability (measured as relative yield per plant), with little distinction between grasses and forbs. Conclusions Our results suggest that short-term competitive success was related to fast growth and high root densities, irrespective of nutrient heterogeneity. Developing a large root mass quickly may overwhelm the importance of other traits in the establishment phase of plants, although these other traits may prove to be important in the long run.

1. Although a major part of plant biomass is underground, we know little about the contribution of different species to root biomass in multispecies communities. We summarize studies on root distributions and plant responses to species‐specific soil biota and formulate three hypotheses to explain how root responses may drive species coexistence and ecosystem productivity. 2. Recent studies suggest that root growth of some species may be stimulated in species mixtures compared with monocultures without hampering the growth of other species, leading to below‐ground overyielding. Further studies suggest that these responses are the result of reduced impairment of growth by species‐specific plant pathogens that accumulate in monocultures. 3. First, we hypothesize that due to pathogen‐constrained growth, monocultures are ‘under‐rooted’, i.e. they do not have enough roots for optimal acquisition of nutrients. Although elevated root production in mixtures represents a cost to the plant, improved nutrition will eventually result in improved plant performance. 4. Second, due to the plant species specificity of the soil biotic communities, we suggest that plant species in mixtures develop an intransitive competitive network in which none of the species is competitively superior to all other species. Competitive intransitivity is proposed as a mechanism of species coexistence. 5. As a final hypothesis, we suggest that pathogen‐mediated root overproduction in species mixtures determines the patterns of community productivity and overyielding, both directly, by improving plant performance, and indirectly, by releasing more carbon into the soil, resulting in enhanced availability of nutrients. 6. Synthesis.Recent evidence suggests that species coexistence and ecosystem productivity may be the result of an interplay between pathogen‐driven plant responses and nutritional consequences. We suggest that responses of the roots are an important yet mostly overlooked intermediary between soil biota and plant community responses to biodiversity.

The leaf economics spectrum (LES) describes consistent correlations among a variety of leaf traits that reflect a gradient from conservative to acquisitive plant strategies. So far, whether the LES holds in wetland plants at a global scale has been unclear. Using data on 365 wetland species from 151 studies, we find that wetland plants in general show a shift within trait space along the same common slope as observed in non-wetland plants, with lower leaf mass per area, higher leaf nitrogen and phosphorus, faster photosynthetic rates, and shorter leaf life span compared to non-wetland plants. We conclude that wetland plants tend to cluster at the acquisitive end of the LES. The presented global quantifications of the LES in wetland plants enhance our understanding of wetland plant strategies in terms of resources acquisition and allocation, and provide a stepping-stone to developing trait-based approaches for wetland ecology. Leaf economics spectrum theory has greatly advanced understanding of plant functional ecology, but it is unclear whether its predictions hold in wetland communities. Here, Pan and colleagues analyse leaf economics traits in wetland plants, showing that their trait relationships deviate from fully terrestrial plants, particularly by clustering towards acquisitive plant strategies.

Flooding is expected to increase in frequency and severity in the future. The ecological consequences of flooding are the combined result of species-specific plant traits and ecological context. However, the majority of past flooding research has focused on individual model species under highly controlled conditions. An early summer flooding event in a grassland biodiversity experiment in Jena, Germany, provided the opportunity to assess flooding responses of 60 grassland species in monocultures and 16-species mixtures. We examined plant biomass, species-specific traits (plant height, specific leaf area (SLA), root aerenchyma, starch content) and soil porosity. We found that, on average, plant species were less negatively affected by the flood when grown in higher-diversity plots in July 2013. By September 2013, grasses were unaffected by the flood regardless of plant diversity, and legumes were severely negatively affected regardless of plant diversity. Plants with greater SLA and more root aerenchyma performed better in September. Soil porosity was higher in higher-diversity plots and had a positive effect on plant performance. As floods become more frequent and severe in the future, growing flood-sensitive plants in higher-diversity communities and in soil with greater soil aeration may attenuate the most negative effects of flooding.

Timely perception of adverse environmental changes is critical for survival. Dynamic changes in gases are important cues for plants to sense environmental perturbations, such as submergence. In Arabidopsis thaliana , changes in oxygen and nitric oxide (NO) control the stability of ERFVII transcription factors. ERFVII proteolysis is regulated by the N-degron pathway and mediates adaptation to flooding-induced hypoxia. However, how plants detect and transduce early submergence signals remains elusive. Here we show that plants can rapidly detect submergence through passive ethylene entrapment and use this signal to pre-adapt to impending hypoxia. Ethylene can enhance ERFVII stability prior to hypoxia by increasing the NO-scavenger PHYTOGLOBIN1. This ethylene-mediated NO depletion and consequent ERFVII accumulation pre-adapts plants to survive subsequent hypoxia. Our results reveal the biological link between three gaseous signals for the regulation of flooding survival and identifies key regulatory targets for early stress perception that could be pivotal for developing flood-tolerant crops. Plant hypoxia responses are controlled by oxygen and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent proteolysis of ERFVII transcription factors. Here Hartman et al . show that passive ethylene entrapment during root submergence enhances NO-scavenger PHYTOGLOBIN1, ERFVII stability and promotes subsequent hypoxia tolerance.

Aim The fine roots of trees may show plastic responses to their resource environment. Several, contrasting hypotheses exist on this plasticity, but empirical evidence for these hypotheses is scattered. This study aims to enhance our understanding of tree root plasticity by examining intra-specific variation in fine-root mass and morphology, fine-root growth and decomposition, and associated mycorrhizal interactions in beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) forests on soils that differ in resource availability. Methods We measured the mass and morphological traits of fine roots (i.e. ≤ 2 mm diameter) sampled to 50 cm depth. Fine-root growth was measured with ingrowth cores, and fine-root decomposition with litter bags. Mycorrhizal fungal biomass was determined using ingrowth mesh bags. Results Both tree species showed more than three times higher fine-root mass, and a ten-fold higher fine-root growth rate on sand than on clay, but no or marginal differences in overall fine-root morphology. Within the fine-root category however, beech stands had relatively more root length of their finest roots on clay than on sand. In the spruce stands, ectomycorrhizal mycelium biomass was larger on sand than on clay. Conclusions In temperate beech and spruce forests, fine-root mass and mycorrhizal fungal biomass, rather than fine-root morphology, are changed to ensure uptake under different soil resource conditions. Yet enhancing our mechanistic understanding of fine-root trait plasticity and how it affects tree growth requires more attention to fine-root dynamics, the functional diversity within the fine-roots, and mycorrhizal symbiosis as an important belowground uptake strategy.

Root systems are highly plastic as they express a range of responses to acquire patchily distributed nutrients. However, the ecological significance of placing roots selectively in nutrient hotspots is still unclear. Here, we investigate under what conditions selective root placement may be a significant functional trait that determines belowground competitive ability. We studied two grasses differing in root foraging behaviour, Festuca rubra and Anthoxanthum odoratum. The plants were grown in stable and more dynamic heterogeneous environments, by switching nutrient patches halfway through the experiment. A. odoratum was a factor of two less selective in placing its roots into nutrient-rich patches than F. mbra. A. odoratum produced overall higher root length densities with higher specific root length than F. rubra and acquired more nutrients. A. odoratum appeared to be the superior competitor, irrespective of the nutrient dynamics. Our results suggest that root behaviour consisting of producing high root length densities at relatively low biomass investments can be a more effective foraging strategy than placing roots selectively in nutrient hotspots. When understanding the functionality of root traits among different species, specific root length may play a key role.

Background and aims The frequency of rain is predicted to change in high latitude areas with more precipitation in heavy, intense events interspersed by longer dry periods. These changes will modify soil drying cycles with unknown consequences for plant performance of temperate species. Methods We studied plant growth and root traits of juveniles of four grasses and four dicots growing in a greenhouse, when supplying the same total amount of water given either regular every other day or pulsed once a week. Results Pulsed water supply replenished soil moisture immediately after watering, but caused substantial drought stress at the end of the watering cycle, whereas regular watering caused more moderate but consistent drought. Grasses had lower water use efficiency in the pulsed watering compared to regular watering, whereas dicots showed no difference. Both grasses and dicots developed thinner roots, thus higher specific root length, and greater root length in the pulsed watering. Growth of dicots was slightly increased under pulsed watering. Conclusions Temperate species coped with pulsed water supply by eliciting two responses: i) persistent shoot growth, most likely by maximizing growth at peaks of soil moisture, thus compensating for slower growth during drought periods; ii) plasticity of root traits related to increased resource uptake. Both responses likely account for subtle improvement of growth under changed water supply conditions.