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Long-term management of more than one language has been argued to contribute to changes in brain and cognition. This has been particularly well documented in older age, where bilingualism has been linked to protective effects against neurocognitive decline. Since memory difficulties are key aspects of this decline, herein we examine potential effects of bilingualism on the hippocampus, a brain structure related to memory that is particularly vulnerable to cognitive ageing. Hippocampal volume has been shown to increase as a result of second language learning and use in younger adults. However, it is unknown if this is maintained throughout the lifespan. We examine hippocampal volume and episodic memory performance in a participant sample consisting of healthy older individuals with a wide range of experiences in exposure and using a second language. Results reveal greater hippocampal volume calibrated to degree of quantified dual language use. Our results mirror those of immersive active bilingualism in younger populations, suggesting that long-term active bilingualism leads to neuroprotective effects in the hippocampus. We discuss this in the context of literature proposing bilingualism-induced brain reserve in the older age.

Herein, we contextualize, problematize, and offer some insights for moving beyond the problem of monolingual comparative normativity in (psycho) linguistic research on bilingualism. We argue that, in the vast majority of cases, juxtaposing (functional) monolinguals to bilinguals fails to offer what the comparison is supposedly intended to do: meet the standards of empirical control in line with the scientific method. Instead, the default nature of monolingual comparative normativity has historically contributed to inequalities in many facets of bilingualism research and continues to impede progress on multiple levels. Beyond framing our views on the matter, we offer some epistemological considerations and methodological alternatives to this standard practice that improve empirical rigor while fostering increased diversity, inclusivity, and equity in our field.

Studies investigating the role of dual language use in modulating executive functions have reported mixed results, with some studies reporting benefits in older adults. These studies typically focus on bilingual settings, while the role of dual language use in diglossic settings is rarely investigated. In diglossia, the two language varieties are separated by context, making it an ideal test case for the effects on cognition of Single Language Contexts, as defined by the Adaptive Control Hypothesis (Green & Abutalebi, 2013). We compare the performances of three groups of older adults, Arab diglossics (n = 28), bilinguals (n = 29), and monolinguals (n = 41), on the Flanker and Stroop tasks, measuring inhibition abilities, and the Color-shape task, measuring switching abilities. We report a diglossic benefit in inhibition as measured by the Flanker task only, and no benefits for the bilingual group. These findings are discussed with reference to conversational contexts in dual language use.

As a result of advances in healthcare, the worldwide average life expectancy is steadily increasing. However, this positive trend has societal and individual costs, not least because greater life expectancy is linked to higher incidence of age-related diseases, such as dementia. Over the past few decades, research has isolated various protective ‘healthy lifestyle’ factors argued to contribute positively to cognitive aging —e.g., healthy diet, physical exercise and occupational attainment. The present article critically reviews neuroscientific evidence for another such factor, i.e., speaking multiple languages. Moreover, with multiple societal stakeholders in mind, we contextualize and stress the importance of the research program that seeks to uncover and understand potential connections between bilingual language experience and cognitive aging trajectories, inclusive of the socio-economic impact it can have. If on the right track, this is an important line of research because bilingualism has the potential to cross-over socio-economic divides to a degree other healthy lifestyle factors currently do not and likely cannot.

Bilingualism has been shown to contribute to increased resilience against cognitive aging. One of the key brain structures linked to memory and dementia symptom onset, the hippocampus, has been observed to adapt in response to bilingual experience – at least in healthy individuals. However, in the context of neurodegenerative pathology, it is yet unclear what role previous bilingual experience might have in terms of sustaining integrity of this structure or related behavioral correlates. The present study adds to the limited cohort of research on the effects of bilingualism on neurocognitive outcomes in Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) using structural brain data. We investigate whether bilingual language experience (operationalized as language entropy) results in graded neurocognitive adaptations within a cohort of bilinguals diagnosed with MCI. Results reveal a non-linear effect of bilingual language entropy on hippocampal volume, although they do not predict episodic memory performance, nor age of MCI diagnosis.

The earliest investigations of the neural implementation of language started with examining patients with various types of disorders and underlying brain damage [...].The earliest investigations of the neural implementation of language started with examining patients with various types of disorders and underlying brain damage [...].

•Multilingual engagement is associated with preserved power in resting-state alpha and theta power across the aging lifespan.•Higher multilingual engagement is associated with smaller Flanker congruency effects (CE) and reduced alpha suppression in aging.•Resting-state oscillatory activity did not directly account for task-related oscillatory activity. This study investigates how individual multilingual engagement modulates brain oscillatory activity and cognitive control across the lifespan, using both resting-state and task-based EEG with a Flanker task. We assessed whether degree of multilingual engagement moderates age-related changes in theta and alpha power and examined how these changes impact task-specific neural dynamics and behavioral performance. Higher degree of multilingual engagement was associated with weaker negative correlations between increasing age and resting-state theta and alpha power. Our analyses of task-based data revealed that older participants with higher degree of multilingual engagement exhibited a smaller Flanker congruency effect (CE) and less reliance on alpha suppression. These patterns may show more efficient interference suppression in this group. In contrast, older adults with lower multilingual engagement demonstrated larger CE and greater alpha suppression, reflecting potentially less efficient neural recruitment. Notably, our findings indicate that effects of higher degree of multilingual engagement extend beyond resting-state dynamics. Specifically, they also impact recruitment patterns in response to cognitive control demands across the lifespan supporting the notion of maintenance of cognitive control mechanisms with increasing age. Interestingly, the hypothesized link between resting-state and task-based power was not observed, suggesting a more complex nature of the mechanisms underlying the relationship between baseline and task-specific activity. By examining resting-state and task-based activity in cognitive control (and potential links between them), this study adds to the growing body of evidence on multilingualism as a lifestyle factor that can contribute to healthier cognitive aging through neurocognitive adaptations.

Modern education is closely connected with implementation and use of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the teaching process. ICT is recommended to be used in schools in Europe to develop competences of students to become high-quality professionals and active citizens in the society. A questionnaire survey of teachers and directors of Latvian schools was carried out in order to evaluate the use of ICT in Latvian schools and attitude of teaching staff towards this process. The results of the questionnaire survey showed that Latvian schools are not supplied with ICT to a satisfactory level. It is necessary to raise the competence of many teachers in the field of ICT. The attitude of teachers to the use of ICT in the study process is more positive in comparison with school directors. Important factors for improvement of ICT use in schools are ICT training for teachers, computer accessibility for teaching staff, sufficient supply of qualitative ICT teaching materials and computers in schools and encouragement of teachers to use ICT.

One of the measures of the quality of education system is equal access to the education opportunity to enable learning for everyone. In the recent years, multiple conventions, declarations, announcements and resolutions regarding inclusive education have been approved internationally and included in the Latvian law of education. Nevertheless, even with the abundant amount of data and previous research results, the introduction and provision of inclusive education in practice has been controversial. The main focus has been placed on child inclusion within the educational system, but support for teachers and parents or legal guardians has not always been sufficient. For inclusive education to be truly successful, all involved parties should be receiving adequate support. Aim of the present study: analysis and evaluation of the present state of inclusive education framework and its success within the Latvian educational system. Materials and methods: literature review, survey. Conclusions: Inclusion of children with special educational needs in the inclusive education framework is a complicated pedagogical and psychological process requiring a specific attitude and preparedness of the education professionals, school staff, parents, children and society as a whole.