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Artificial feeding of young infants is considered a modern phenomenon. However, historical sources note its practice in some past European populations. This research explores factors that contributed to a short to absent period of breastfeeding in pre-modern Netherlands. Stable nitrogen and carbon isotope analysis is undertaken on 277 19 th century individuals from Beemster, a, rural, mainly Protestant, dairy farming community. An intra-individual sampling approach for ≤6 year-olds compares newer metaphyseal to older diaphyseal long bone collagen to classify feeding status at death. Archivally identified individuals permit analyses of sex and year-of-death. Few infants have isotopic evidence for breastfeeding and, if present, it was likely of short duration or a minor source of dietary protein. From only a few weeks to months of age infants were fed cow’s milk and paps with sugar. There is broad dietary homogeneity with no sex or temporal isotopic differences, but young infants (1–11 months) have the most ẟ 15 N and ẟ 13 C variation highlighting the effect of multiple dietary and physiological processes. Beemster had many factors associated with high rates of breastfeeding in other Dutch communities, yet, most mothers did not breastfeed, or not for long, showing that regional variation in infant feeding is influenced by community values and traditions. On top of child rearing and domestic chores, female dairy farmers were in charge of milking cattle and dairy production, an important income source, suggesting high workload was also a factor in short or absent breastfeeding periods, aided by the constant supply of fresh milk that could be fed to an infant by an older sibling.

Compound-specific stable carbon isotope analysis of amino acids (CSIA-AA) is widely used in ecological studies to analyze food-webs and is gaining use in archaeology for investigating past diets. However, its use in reconstructing breastfeeding and weaning practices is not fully understood. This study evaluates the efficacy of stable carbon isotope analysis of amino acids in early life diet reconstruction by analyzing keratin from fingernail samples of three mother-infant pairs during late gestation and early postpartum periods. Our results show that stable carbon isotope ratios ( δ 13 C) of glycine, and to a lesser extent glutamate, effectively trace the onset of exclusive breastfeeding and the end of weaning in infants. We propose that glycine’s ‘conditionally essential’ metabolic pathway during infancy allows it to reflect maternal glycine δ 13 C, indicating breastmilk consumption. Subtle changes in glutamate δ 13 C likely result from its ‘non-essential’ status. Additionally, δ 13 C values of glycine and glutamate indicate maternal physiological and pathological stress due to catabolic effects such as gluconeogenesis. These findings have significant implications for ecological and archaeological research using CSIA-AA for dietary reconstructions. They highlight the need to understand how metabolic pathways affecting δ 13 C of amino acids may change over an individual’s lifespan or be altered due to various forms of stress.

The spread of pastoralism in Asia is poorly understood, including how such processes affected northern forager populations. Lake Baikal’s western shore has a rich Holocene archaeological record that tracks these processes. The Early Bronze Age here is evidenced by numerous forager burials. The Early Iron Age (EIA) is thought to mark the arrival of pastoralists, but archaeological remains from this period have received little analysis. New radiocarbon dates for EIA human remains from 23 cemeteries indicate that no burials were created along this shore for ~900 years. This period, from ~3670 to 2760 cal. BP, spans from the end of the Early Bronze Age to the advent of the EIA. The burial gap may mark disruption of local foraging populations through incursions by non-local pastoralists. Radiocarbon dates on faunal remains indicate that domestic herd animals first appear around 3275 cal. BP, just prior to the first EIA human burials. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human remains and zooarchaeological data indicate that domestic fauna were minor dietary components for EIA people. Like preceding foragers, the EIA groups relied extensively on Baikal’s aquatic food sources, indicating that the scale of pastoralism during this period was relatively limited.

While speech and language do not fossilize, they still leave traces that can be extracted and interpreted. Here, we suggest that the shape of the hard structures of the vocal tract may also allow inferences about the speech of long-gone humans. These build on recent experimental and modelling studies, showing that there is extensive variation between individuals in the precise shape of the vocal tract, and that this variation affects speech and language. In particular, we show that detailed anatomical information concerning two components of the vocal tract (the lower jaw and the hard palate) can be extracted and digitized from the osteological remains of three historical populations from The Netherlands, and can be used to conduct three-dimensional biomechanical simulations of vowel production. We could recover the signatures of inter-individual variation between these vowels, in acoustics and articulation. While 'proof-of-concept', this study suggests that older and less well-preserved remains could be used to draw inferences about historic and prehistoric languages. Moreover, it forces us to clarify the meaning and use of the uniformitarian principle in linguistics, and to consider the wider context of language use, including the anatomy, physiology and cognition of the speakers. This article is part of the theme issue 'Reconstructing prehistoric languages'.

To date, characterization of ancient oral (dental calculus) and gut (coprolite) microbiota has been primarily accomplished through a metataxonomic approach involving targeted amplification of one or more variable regions in the 16S rRNA gene. Specifically, the V3 region ( E. coli 341–534) of this gene has been suggested as an excellent candidate for ancient DNA amplification and microbial community reconstruction. However, in practice this metataxonomic approach often produces highly skewed taxonomic frequency data. In this study, we use non-targeted (shotgun metagenomics) sequencing methods to better understand skewed microbial profiles observed in four ancient dental calculus specimens previously analyzed by amplicon sequencing. Through comparisons of microbial taxonomic counts from paired amplicon (V3 U341F/534R) and shotgun sequencing datasets, we demonstrate that extensive length polymorphisms in the V3 region are a consistent and major cause of differential amplification leading to taxonomic bias in ancient microbiome reconstructions based on amplicon sequencing. We conclude that systematic amplification bias confounds attempts to accurately reconstruct microbiome taxonomic profiles from 16S rRNA V3 amplicon data generated using universal primers. Because in silico analysis indicates that alternative 16S rRNA hypervariable regions will present similar challenges, we advocate for the use of a shotgun metagenomics approach in ancient microbiome reconstructions.

Research on vitamin D deficiency in past and present populations shows the profound effect diet has on health. The rural Dutch community of Beemster, The Netherlands, revolved around cattle farming with access to enough sunlight to prevent vitamin D deficiency. However, analyses of a predominantly nineteenth-century cemetery revealed an unexpectedly high prevalence of rickets in non-adults (<18 years). Stable nitrogen (δ15N) and carbon (δ13C) isotope analyses of 227 individuals are used to reconstruct diet and infant feeding practices to explore if nutritional factors contributed to vitamin D deficiency. Infants and children (4 weeks–6.9 years) with rickets have significantly lower δ15N and δ13C values than those without rickets, suggesting that variable consumption of foods such as eggs and fish played a role in rickets occurrence. Infants were weaned on unpasteurized cow’s milk, some at a very young age, which could have caused deleterious health effects that worsened the absorption of dietary vitamin D and limited exposure to sunlight. Juveniles and adolescents (7.0–17.9 years) with rickets, and adults (18.0+ years) with residual rickets, do not have significantly dissimilar stable isotope values from their non-rachitic counterparts, suggesting that dietary differences, or health factors that caused dietary differences, were no longer present. A life-course approach demonstrates that infant and child diet were important etiological agents in the high rate of occurrence of vitamin D deficiency in Beemster. Stable isotope analysis permits assessment of the role of diet in the morbidity of past populations, and this offers important information for current understandings of disease etiology. Onderzoek naar vitamine D-deficiëntie in vroegere en huidige populaties laat het diepgaande effect van voeding op de gezondheid zien. In de Nederlandse plattelandse gemeenschap Beemster was veehouderij de belangrijkste inkomstenbron en daarmee lijkt toegang tot voldoende zonlicht om vitamine D-tekort te voorkomen gegarandeerd. Echter, uit analyses van een overwegend negentiende-eeuwse begraafplaats bleek echter een onverwacht hoge prevalentie van rachitis in onvolwassen individuen (<18 jaar). Stabiele stikstof-(δ15N) en koolstof-(δ13C) isotopenanalyses van 227 personen worden gebruikt om dieet en voedingsgebruiken bij baby’s te reconstrueren om te onderzoeken of voedingsfactoren hebben bijgedragen aan het vitamine D-tekort. De resultaten laten zien dat baby’s en kinderen (4 weken–6,9 jaar) met rachitis een significant lagere δ15N-en δ13C-waarden hebben dan de baby’s en kinderen zonder rachitis, wat suggereert dat wisselende consumptie van voedingsmiddelen zoals eieren en vis een rol speelde bij rachitis. Zuigelingen, sommige al op zeer jonge leeftijd, werden gespeend met ongepasteuriseerde koemelk, dat schadelijke gezondheidseffecten kan hebben veroorzaakt die de opname van vitamine D uit het dieet verslechterde en beperkte blootstelling aan zonlicht verergerde. Jongeren en adolescenten (7,0–17,9 jaar) met rachitis en volwassenen (18,0+ jaar) met nog zichtbare rachitis opgelopen in de kindertijd, hebben overeenkomende stabiele isotoopwaarden in vergelijking met hun niet-rachitische tegenhangers. Dit geeft aan dat de verschillen in voeding of in gezondheidsfactoren die bij hebben gedragen aan de ontwikkeling van rachitis in baby’s en kinderen niet langer een rol speelden. Deze levensloopbenadering toont aan dat voeding voor baby’s en kinderen een belangrijke factor is bij het hoge voorkomen van vitamine D-tekort in Beemster. Stabiele isotopenanalyse maakt het mogelijk om de rol van voeding bij morbiditeit van populaties uit het verleden te onderzoeken en geeft zo belangrijke informatie voor huidige inzichten in de etiologie van ziekten.

This study combines historical data and the principles of bone functional adaptation to examine variation in terrestrial mobility in men and women from pre-industrial urban (Alkmaar 7M, 9F) and rural (Klaaskinderkerke 12M, 8F; Middenbeemster 21M, 22F) Dutch populations. Cross-sectional properties of the femoral and tibial midshaft are determined to investigate variation in lower limb mechanical loading. All populations had comparable age ranges. Rural Middenbeemster males had significantly more elliptically shaped tibiae compared to the other populations. Rural males from Klaaskinderkerke had significantly greater femoral cross-sectional area and torsional rigidity compared to females. In the tibia, the males from both rural populations had greater torsional rigidity and cross-sectional area compared to females. In the rural Middenbeemster population the males also had significantly more elliptically shaped tibiae compared to females. While no sexual dimorphism was found in the urban Alkmaar, significantly greater variation in lower limb cross-sectional properties was found for both males and females relative to the rural populations. These results conform to predictions based on the historical literature of greater lower limb loading in rural males compared to females as well as a greater variety of tasks performed in urban environments. The lack of significant differences in lower limb torsionalrigidity or shape between populations in either sex suggests that rural life was not necessarily more physically strenuous than urban life in pre-industrial Dutch populations. However, variation in sexual dimorphism suggests that labor between males and females was differently organized in the rural and urban samples.Keywords: cross-sectional geometry; sexual dimorphism; the Netherlands Dit onderzoek combineert historische bronnen met biomechanische analyse van skeletten om variatie in mobiliteit tussen mannen en vrouwen in Nederlandse pre-industriële populaties uit de stad (Alkmaar 7M, 9V) en het platteland (Klaaskinderkerke 12M, 8V; Middenbeemster 21M, 22V) te bestuderen. Dwarsdoorsneden van de diafysen van de femur en tibia zijn gebruikt om variatie in de belasting van de benen te berekenen. Leeftijd is inalle populaties gelijk verdeeld. De Middenbeemster mannen hebben significant meer elliptische diafysen in de femur dan de andere populaties. De Klaaskinderkerke mannen hebben significant hogere torsiestijfheid en oppervlakte van de dwarsdoorsneden van de femur. De plattelandse mannen bezitten significant hogere torsiestijfheid en oppervlaktes van de dwarsdoorsneden van de tibia dan de vrouwen. De Middenbeemster mannen hebben ook significant meer elliptische diafysen in de tibia dan de vrouwen. Er zijn geen significante verschillen tussen mannen en vrouwen uit Alkmaar. Er is echter wel significant meer variatie in de biomechanische eigenschappen van mannen en vrouwen in de populatie uit Alkmaar vergeleken met de plattelandse populaties. Deze resultaten komen overeen met voorspellingen gebaseerd op historische bronnen dat mannen op het platteland mobieler waren dan vrouwen, en dat er in de stad meer variatie in activiteiten bestond dan op het platteland. Het gebrek aan significante verschillen tussen mannen en vrouwen uit de stad en het platteland duiden erop dat het leven op het platteland niet per se fysiek zwaarder was dan in de stad in pre-industriële Nederlandse populaties. Verschillen in seksuele dimorfie duiden echter wel aan dat arbeid tussen mannen en vrouwen anders verdeeld was in de stad en op het platteland.

The Iberian medieval period is unique in European history due to the widespread socio-cultural changes that took place after the arrival of Arabs, Berbers and Islam in 711 AD. Recently, isotopic research has been insightful on dietary shifts, status, resource availability and the impact of environment. However, there is no published isotopic research exploring these factors in southern Iberian populations, and as the history of this area differs to the northern regions, this leaves a significant lacuna in our knowledge. This research fills this gap via isotopic analysis of human ( n  = 66) and faunal ( n  = 13) samples from the 9th to the 13th century Écija, a town renowned for high temperatures and salinity. Stable carbon (δ 13 C) and nitrogen (δ 15 N) isotopes were assessed from rib collagen, while carbon (δ 13 C) values were derived from enamel apatite. Human diet is consistent with C 3 plant consumption with a very minor contribution of C 4 plants, an interesting feature considering the suitability of Écija to C 4 cereal production. δ 15 N values vary among adults, which may suggest variable animal protein consumption or isotopic variation within animal species due to differences in foddering. Consideration of δ 13 C collagen and apatite values together may indicate sugarcane consumption, while moderate δ 15 N values do not suggest a strong aridity or salinity effect. Comparison with other Iberian groups shows similarities relating to time and location rather than by religion, although more multi-isotopic studies combined with zooarchaeology and botany may reveal subtle differences unobservable in carbon and nitrogen collagen studies alone.

Archaeological evidence from the submerged North Sea landscape has established the rich diversity of Pleistocene and Early Holocene ecosystems and their importance to hunter-gatherer subsistence strategies. Comparatively little of this evidence, however, dates to the Late Glacial, the period when Northern Europe was repopulated by colonising foragers. A human parietal bone and a decorated bovid metatarsus recently recovered from the floor of the North Sea have been dated to this crucial transitional period. They are set against the background of significant climatic and environmental changes and a major technological and sociocultural transformation. These discoveries also reaffirm the importance of continental shelves as archaeological archives.

Within the past quarter century, researchers have taken steps to understand pathophysiological stable isotope fractionation within mammalian tissues more accurately. Biomedically, researchers have demonstrated that pulmonary disease, smoking, organ failure, anemia, anorexia, and changes in metabolic rate all affect the isotopic composition of human tissues and tissue by-products. This research strongly suggests that a relationship exists between human (patho)physiology and stable isotope biochemistry. Despite the results achieved by these studies, only a small minority of bioarchaeologists have attempted to elucidate these mechanisms in human skeletal and dental tissues. This research presents the results of a pilot study aimed at examining the degree to which bone collagen δ13C and δ15N values and enamel apatite δ18O and δ13C values vary between individuals with and without lesions indicative of a chronic anemia. Consistent with previous research, our results indicate that the enamel apatite of suspected anemics have significantly lower δ18O values relative to their lesion-free counterparts (U = 4.00, p = 0.05); however, this result was limited to the first permanent molar. Due to the small sample size and the lack of information concerning breast-feeding and weaning practices in the region during this time, it is not possible to link this variation definitively to the pathophysiology of anemia and/or its sequelae. There was no significant variation in bone collagen δ13C or δ15N values between anemic and lesion-free juveniles (δ13C: U = 26.00, p = 0.38; δ15N: U = 33.00, p = 0.85) or between anemic and lesion-free adults (δ15N: U = 2.70, p = 0.26; δ13C: U = 4.57, p = 0.10). A number of intrinsic and extrinsic factors may have contributed to the lack of variation. While sample sizes are small, the data indicate that future analysis is warranted. En el último cuarto de siglo, los investigadores han tomado medidas para comprender con mayor precisión Fraccionamiento de isótopos estables fisiopatológicos en tejidos de mamíferos. Biomédicamente, los investigadores han Demostró que la enfermedad pulmonar, el tabaquismo, la insuficiencia orgánica, la anemia, la anorexia y los cambios metabólicos. La velocidad de todos los efectos de la composición isotópica de los tejidos humanos y los productos derivados del tejido. Esta investigación fuertemente sugiere que existe una relación entre la fisiología humana (patho) y la bioquímica de isótopos estables. A pesar de los resultados logrados por estos estudios, solo una pequeña minoría de bioarqueólogos ha intentado Elucidar estos mecanismos en los tejidos humanos esqueléticos y dentales. Esta investigación presenta los resultados de un estudio piloto destinado a examinar el grado en que el colágeno óseo valores δ13C y δ15N, y el esmalte los valores de apatito δ18O y δ13C varían entre individuos con lesiones indicativas de anemia crónica, y aquellos sin De acuerdo con investigaciones anteriores, nuestros resultados indican que el apatito de esmalte de las anémicas han agotado significativamente los valores de δ18O en relación con sus contrapartes libres de lesiones (U = 4.00, p = 0.05), sin embargo esto se limitó al primer molar permanente. Debido al pequeño tamaño de la muestra y la falta de información sobre las prácticas de lactancia materna y destete en la región durante este tiempo, no es posible vincular definitivamente esta variación a la fisiopatología de la anemia y / o sus secuelas. Había no hay variación significativa en los valores de colágeno óseo δ13C o δ15N entre los juveniles anémicos y sin lesiones (δ13C: U = 26.00, p = 0.38; δ15N: U = 33.00, p = 0.85), o adultos anémicos y sin lesiones (δ15N: U = 2.70, p = 0,26; δ13C U = 4.57, p = 0.10). Varios factores pueden haber contribuido a la falta de variación. Se requiere más investigación con tamaños de muestra más grandes y una estrategia de muestreo más refinada.