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"Watts, Fraser"
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Healing the Rift between Theology and Spirituality: Theological Commentary on Chatlos's Framework of Spirituality
There is often an unnecessary relationship of mistrust between theology and advocates of spirituality. Theological misgivings about a spirituality that is independent of religion focus largely on concerns about what the word spiritual means; questions about how spirituality relates to religion; concerns about an overemphasis on subjective experience in the framework of spirituality (FOS); the question of whether there are external influences on religious and spiritual experience; and the prospects for interdisciplinary work on spirituality between theology, science, and philosophy. I suggest that the FOS is less nonreligious, as often assumed, but rather stands in a distinct quasi-religious tradition, and that internal and external influences on spiritual experience should not be regarded as alternatives. My hope is that there will be more fruitful dialogue between theology and the FOS, though that depends on a better understanding of the nature of the various disciplines involved and respect for their various core assumptions.
Journal Article
Spiritual Conversation with a Companion Machine
This article explores the prospects for humans having spiritual conversation with a computer. It has long been clear that it is possible for humans to talk about personal issues with a computer, as evident from Weizenbaum’s early work on programming nondirective counseling. There are various ways in which automated spiritual interlocutors could be developed, e.g., using chatbot methodologies, script-based knowledge, machine learning, or some kind of hybrid. Preliminary empirical work suggests that a significant number of people are happy to discuss spiritual issues with a computer, whether the responses are by a human masquerading as a computer using Wizard-of-Oz methodology or GPT. In due course, it may be possible to develop a personalized artificial spiritual companion. The acceptability of spiritual conversation with the computer may depend on various factors such as the personality of the human user, their views on religious issues, and the focus and content of the spiritual conversation.
Journal Article
Is There ‘Spiritual Intelligence’? An Evaluation of Strong and Weak Proposals
The debate about whether, and in what sense, there is ‘spiritual intelligence’ remains unresolved. We suggest it will be helpful to make a distinction between strong and weak versions of the claim. The strong version proposes that there is a separate and distinct spiritual intelligence that meets the criteria set out by Howard Gardner in his ‘multiple intelligences’ framework. This involves evidence from neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, individual differences, experimental tasks, and psychometrics. We review the relevant evidence and conclude that there is no support for the strong proposal. The weak version of the claim assumes that the intelligence that is apparent in spiritual contexts is the same as is found elsewhere, but it is nevertheless deployed in a distinctive way. We suggest that the evidence supports the claim, and we review six key marks of spiritual intelligence: ineffability, embodiment, open-minded attention, pattern-seeking meaning-making, participation, and relationality. Our approach makes use of a cognitive architecture, Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS), which has been proved useful in modelling spiritual practices. It will be helpful in the future to bring this approach into dialogue with other scientific approaches to spiritual intelligence from psychometrics and from experimental research.
Journal Article
DISCUSSION OF THE BOYLE LECTURE 2021
This short article summarizes and extends the panel discussion that followed the Boyle Lecture 2021 by Tom McLeish. The panel largely accepted the central claims of the lecture and focused rather on its implications. That included the importance of teaching history and philosophy of science alongside science itself, and the importance of finding helpful and appropriate ways of engaging the public in the scientific process. There was considerable discussion of the place of meditative and contemplative practices in science. It seems that intuition and imagination play an important role in scientific discovery, if not in more formal theorizing, and are close to contemplative experience. Emphasizing that aspect of science might lead to a refocusing of natural theology, focusing more on scientific processes than on scientific findings.
Journal Article
United on Sunday: The effects of secular rituals on social bonding and affect
Religious rituals are associated with health benefits, potentially produced via social bonding. It is unknown whether secular rituals similarly increase social bonding. We conducted a field study with individuals who celebrate secular rituals at Sunday Assemblies and compared them with participants attending Christian rituals. We assessed levels of social bonding and affect before and after the rituals. Results showed the increase in social bonding taking place in secular rituals is comparable to religious rituals. We also found that both sets of rituals increased positive affect and decreased negative affect, and that the change in positive affect predicted the change in social bonding observed. Together these results suggest that secular rituals might play a similar role to religious ones in fostering feelings of social connection and boosting positive affect.
Journal Article
ROWAN WILLIAMS ON ATTENTION AND MEMORY IN THE SPIRITUAL LIFE
In a series of recent articles, including his Boyle Lecture, Rowan Williams has developed a theology of the role of intelligence and attention in spiritual life. There is a sense in which all intelligence is spiritual activity. Current approaches to intelligence are often mechanistic, but intelligence in spiritual life needs to be understood in a more embodied and organic way. Attention is often thought of as a matter of choosing which already‐formed objects to focus on. That overlooks the fact that sensory information is often confusing and ambiguous, and neglects how habits of attention make the world appear more atomized than it really is. If we can learn restraint in how we impose order upon the world around us in attending to it, there is an opportunity to encounter the divine Spirit which is the source of all that we experience. That leads to a more participatory, less objectifying, way of engaging with the world.
Journal Article
The evolution of religious cognition
Several accounts of the evolution of religion distinguish two phases: an earlier shamanic stage and a later doctrinal stage. Similarly, several theories of human cognition distinguish two cognitive modes: a phylogenetically older system that is largely intuitive and a later, more distinctively human system that is more rational and articulate. This article suggests that cognition in the earlier stage in the evolution of religion is largely at the level of intuition, whereas the cognition of doctrine or religion is more conceptual and rational. Early religious cognition is more embodied and is more likely to carry healing benefits. The evolutionary origins of religion in humans seem to depend on developments in the cognitive architecture. It is further suggested that the cognition of early religion shows less conceptual differentiation, is characteristically participatory rather than objectifying and is less individualistic. The development of religion in recent centuries appears to show some approximate recapitulation of the stages through which religion originally evolved.
Journal Article
A 21st Century Debate on Science and Religion
The progress of modern science and technology has led to remarkable insights into the nature of the universe and of human life. These insights have challenged and transformed former traditional worldviews and narratives. This book explores and addresses the challenges that arise at the interface of science and religion in the 21st century. How does science affect the way that religion is perceived? Do modern scientific findings confirm or invalidate the perspective of faith? How does science lead religious persons to revise the way they understand their faith and its practices? Is a mutually respectful and mutually beneficial dialogue possible between science and faith? Drawing from many disciplines, psychology, theology, philosophy, history, cognitive science, education, this book considers the crucial questions of how science and religion can help shape our worldviews and ways of life today.
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