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Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens) is a plant found in Mexico and Central America that is traditionally used as a medicinal herb. In the present study, we investigated the antiviral activity of the essential oil of Mexican oregano and its major component, carvacrol, against different human and animal viruses. The MTT test (3-4,5-dimethythiazol-2yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) was conducted to determine the selectivity index (SI) of the essential oil, which was equal to 13.1, 7.4, 10.8, 9.7, and 7.2 for acyclovir-resistant herpes simplex virus type 1 (ACVR-HHV-1), acyclovir-sensitive HHV-1, human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV), bovine herpesvirus type 2 (BoHV-2), and bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), respectively. The human rotavirus (RV) and BoHV-1 and 5 were not inhibited by the essential oil. Carvacrol alone exhibited high antiviral activity against RV with a SI of 33, but it was less efficient than the oil for the other viruses. Thus, Mexican oregano oil and its main component, carvacrol, are able to inhibit different human and animal viruses in vitro. Specifically, the antiviral effects of Mexican oregano oil on ACVR-HHV-1 and HRSV and of carvacrol on RV justify more detailed studies. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

The envelope glycoprotein E2 of pestiviruses is a major target for neutralizing antibodies. In this study, we analyzed the E2 DA domain of 43 pestiviruses from Southern Brazil. The isolates were identified as Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) subtypes 1a and 1b or BVDV-2b. Compared to reference strains, the BVDV-1 and -2 isolates had four and two mutations in the DA domain, respectively. All BVDV-2 isolates had a deletion of residues 724 and 725. All mutated amino acids in the BVDV isolates had the same aa substitution, and all were in previously identified antibody binding sites. It is possible that an immunity-mediated selection is acting on the pestiviruses circulating in Southern Brazil.

Contamination of biological products with Mycoplasma spp. represents a major problem for laboratories and vaccine industry. Herein, we investigated Mycoplasma spp. contamination in cell cultures and viral strains maintained at the Virology Section of the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria and evaluated drugs and protocols for decontamination. Among 25 cell lines and primary cultures tested by PCR, 16 (64%) were contaminated. Fourteen bovine viral strains were also found contaminated, including three bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1), two BVDV-2, four bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), one each: HoBiPeV, BoHV-2, BoHV-5, bovine parainfluenza virus 3 (bPI-3V) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV). Two drugs (Plasmocin ® [P] and gentamicin [G]) were used individually or mixed for decontamination. Bovine (MDBK and CRIB cells), porcine (PK-15), rabbit (RK-13) and hamster (BHK-21) cell lineages were maintained in media containing the drugs and tested by PCR at weekly intervals. The combined P + G treatment was effective in eliminating Mycoplasma spp. from four cultures between days 35 and 42, followed by treatment with Plasmocin ® (3/4) and gentamicin alone (1/4). The CRIB cell line could not be decontaminated. After, a decontamination protocol of viral seeds was carried out, consisting of amplification in cell culture, centrifugation of the viral suspension, filtration, limiting dilution and culture in mycoplasma-free cells. The fourteen viral strains were decontaminated after 1 to 4 cycles of the protocol. Overall, we detected a high frequency of Mycoplasma spp. contamination in cell cultures and viral strains and successfully applied drugs and protocols for decontamination. RESUMO: A contaminação de produtos biológicos com Mycoplasma spp. representa um grande problema para laboratórios e indústria de vacinas. Este trabalho investigou contaminação por Mycoplasma spp. em cultivos celulares e cepas virais do Setor de Virologia da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria e avaliou drogas e protocolos de descontaminação. Dentre 25 cultivos celulares testados por PCR, 16 (64%) estavam contaminados. Quatorze cepas virais também estavam contaminadas, incluindo três do vírus da diarreia viral bovina 1 (BVDV-1), dois BVDV-2, quatro do alfaherpesvírus bovino tipo 1 (BoHV-1) e um de HoBiPeV, BoHV-2, BoHV-5, vírus parainfluenza bovino 3 (bPI-3V) e vírus sincicial respiratório bovino (BRSV). Duas drogas (Plasmocin ® [P] e gentamicina [G]) foram utilizadas individualmente ou combinadas para a descontaminação celular. Linhagens celulares bovinas (MDBK e CRIB), suínas (PK-15), de coelho (RK-13) e de hamster (BHK-21) foram mantidas em meio contendo as drogas e testadas por PCR a intervalos semanais. O tratamento combinado P + G foi eficaz na eliminação de Mycoplasma spp. de quatro cultivos entre os dias 35 e 42, seguido pelo tratamento com Plasmocin ® (3/4) e gentamicina (1/4). A linhagem CRIB não pôde ser descontaminada. Posteriormente, um protocolo de descontaminação de cepas virais foi realizado, consistindo em amplificação em cultivo celular, centrifugação, filtração, diluição limitante e amplificação em células livres de Mycoplasma spp. As quatorze cepas virais foram descontaminadas após 1 a 4 ciclos do protocolo. Em conclusão, detectou-se uma alta frequência de contaminação por Mycoplasma spp. em cultivos celulares e cepas virais e aplicou-se com sucesso drogas e protocolos de descontaminação.

An unprecedented outbreak of rabies occurred in Rio Grande do Sul state (RS) from 2012 onward, resulting in thousands of bovine deaths, important economic losses, and posing risk to human health. This article describes a genetic analysis of 145 rabies viruses (RABV) recovered from herbivorous from RS between 2012 and 2017, based on partial sequence analysis of the nucleoprotein (N) gene. High nucleotide ( nt ) identity (95.5 to 100%) and amino acid ( aa ) similarity (96.7 to 100%) were observed among the analyzed sequences. These sequences displayed a high sequence nt identity/ aa similarity with bovine RABV sequences (96.4–97.9%; 98.1–100%, respectively) and vampire bat RABV sequences (96.3–97.5%; 97.8–99.5%). Phylogenetic analyzes based on the N sequence allowed for the segregation of viruses into two distinct clusters . Cluster 1 comprised RABV sequences covering the whole studied period, whereas cluster 2 grouped a lower number of viruses from 2013, 2014, 2015, to 2017. In some cases, viruses obtained from the same region within a short period of time grouped to distinct clusters or sub-clusters, indicating the co-circulation of distinct virus lineages in these outbreaks. The segregation into sub-clusters was also observed for viral sequences obtained from the same region at different times, indicating the involvement of distinct viruses. In summary, partial sequence analyses revealed a high conservation of N protein and the circulation of two lineages and different sublineages of RABV in the region. In addition, our results confirm the suitability of N gene to study the genetic relationships among RABV isolates.

Discussion section, 9th paragraph.

The present study investigated the frequency and magnitude of neutralizing antibodies to rabies virus (RABV) in dogs with and without historic of vaccination in Santa Maria/RS. Group A included serum samples from 440 dogs with recent historic of vaccination against rabies, obtained during the 2015 rabies vaccination campaign. Group B included 300 serum samples from dogs submitted to the Veterinary Hospital of the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria in 2015, whose historic of rabies vaccination was unknown. Serum samples were submitted to the rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) to detect neutralizing antibodies against RABV. In group A, 70.6% (310/440) of the samples had neutralizing antibody titers ≥0.5 international units per milliliter (IU mL-1), considered an indicative of protection against rabies by the World Health Organization. However, approximately 30% of the dogs did not contain antibodies in adequate levels. In group B, 42.3% (127/300) of the samples contained neutralizing antibody titers ≥0.5IU mL-1 and 57.7% (173/300) were negative or contained titers below of the value considered immunized. These results demonstrate that an important proportion of vaccinated dogs (~30%) did not develop adequate antibody levels, mainly those receiving a single vaccine dose. Serologic testing of animals with unknown historic of vaccination revealed relatively low vaccine coverage in the general dog population. Thus, reformulation of immunization strategies - especially the recommendation of a boost vaccination 30 days after the primary dose - and extension of vaccination campaigns are necessary to reach adequate levels and coverage of immunity against RABV in the canine population. RESUMO: O presente estudo investigou a frequência e a magnitude dos anticorpos neutralizantes do vírus da raiva (RABV) em cães com e sem histórico de vacinação em Santa Maria/RS. O Grupo A incluiu amostras de soro de 440 cães com histórico recente de vacinação contra a raiva, obtidos durante a campanha de vacinação contra a raiva de 2015. O Grupo B incluiu 300 amostras de cães submetidos ao Hospital Veterinário da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria em 2015, cujo histórico de vacinação antirrábica era desconhecido. As amostras de soro foram submetidas ao teste rápido de inibição de focos fluorescentes para detecção de anticorpos neutralizantes do RABV. No grupo A, 70,6% (310/440) das amostras possuíam títulos de anticorpos neutralizantes ≥0,5 unidades internacionais por mililitro (UI mL-1), considerado um indicador de proteção contra a raiva pela Organização Mundial da Saúde. No entanto, aproximadamente 30% dos animais não continham anticorpos em níveis adequados. No grupo B, 42,3% (127/300) das amostras continham títulos de anticorpos neutralizantes ≥0,5UI mL-1 e 57,7% (173/300) eram negativas ou continham títulos abaixo do valor considerado imunizado. Estes resultados demonstram que uma proporção importante de cães vacinados (~30%) não desenvolveu níveis adequados de anticorpos, principalmente aqueles que receberam uma única dose de vacina. O teste sorológico de animais com histórico de vacinação desconhecido revelou uma cobertura vacinal relativamente baixa na população geral de cães. Assim, a reformulação das estratégias de imunização - especialmente a recomendação de uma vacinação de reforço 30 dias após a primeira dose - e a extensão das campanhas de vacinação são necessárias para atingir níveis e cobertura adequados de imunidade contra o RABV na população canina.

Equid alphaherpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is distributed worldwide and is a major agent of abortion, respiratory and neurological disease in horses. No specific treatment is available for EHV-1 infection, yet the potential of antiviral therapy has been explored. In this study we investigated the in vitro activity of Acyclovir, Ganciclovir, Foscarnet, Famciclovir, Vidarabina and Cidofovir against EHV-1. For this, the MTT test was performed, in which all the tested drugs showed no toxicity up to 200μg/mL. Subsequently, different drug concentrations were submitted to viral plaque reduction assays in cell culture. The selectivity index (SI) of the compounds was determined using the cytotoxic concentration for 50% of cells (CC50), obtained by MTT, and effective drug concentration to inhibit by 50% the number of viral plaques (EC50). Ganciclovir (SI: 490; EC50: 1.9 μg/mL) was the most efficient and safest drug against EHV-1, followed by Cidofovir (SI: 150, EC50: 5.7μg/mL), Acyclovir (SI: 37.4, EC50: 22.2μg/mL), Famciclovir (SI: 25.1, EC50: 24.5μg/mL), Vidarabine (SI: 12.2, EC50: 40.9μg/mL) and Foscarnet (SI: 6.9, EC50: 49.5 μg/mL), respectively. These results indicated that Ganciclovir (followed by Cidofovir), is a promising candidate for use in in vivo experiments. RESUMO: O alfaherpesvírus equino tipo 1 (EHV-1) está amplamente distribuído nos rebanhos equinos de todo o mundo e é um dos principais agentes causadores de abortos, doença respiratória e neurológica em equinos. Ainda não há tratamento específico para a infecção pelo EHV-1 em equinos, mas o potencial da terapia antiviral tem sido investigado. Neste trabalho, foi investigada a atividade anti-herpética in vitro dos fármacos Aciclovir, Ganciclovir, Foscanet, Famciclovir, Vidarabina e Cidofovir frente ao EHV-1. Para isso, foi realizado o teste de MTT, em que todas as drogas não apresentaram citotoxicidade até a dose de 200μg/mL. A seguir, diferentes concentrações dos fármacos foram submetidas ao teste de redução de placas virais em cultivo celular. O índice de seletividade (IS) dos compostos foi determinado usando a concentração citotóxica para 50% dos cultivos celulares (CC50), obtida pelo MTT, e pela concentração dos fármacos efetiva para inibir em 50% o número de placas virais (EC50). O Ganciclovir (IS: 490; EC50: 1,9μg/mL) foi o mais eficiente e seguro frente ao EHV-1, seguido pelo Cidofovir (IS: 150; EC50: 5,7 μg/mL), Aciclovir (IS: 37,4; EC50: 22,2μg/mL), Famciclovir (IS: 25,1; EC50: 24,5μg/mL), Vidarabina (IS: 12,2; EC50: 40,9μg/mL) e Foscarnet (IS: 6,9; EC50: 49,5μg/mL). Estes resultados indicam que o Ganciclovir constitui-se em um candidato para uso em experimentos in vivo.

The antibody response to rabies virus (RABV) induced by commercial vaccines in heifers was investigated. For this, 84 heifers were vaccinated twice (30 days interval) with each of four vaccines (G1 = 14 animals; G2 = 24; G3 = 22 and G4 = 24) and received a booster vaccination 360 days later. Serum samples collected at different intervals after vaccination and 30 days after booster were submitted to a virus neutralizing (VN) assay for RABV antibodies. Thirty days after the second vaccine dose, 92% of the immunized animals presented VN titers ≥0.5UI/mL (geometric medium titers [GMT] 1.7 to 3.8UI/mL). At the day of the booster (360 days post-vaccination); however, the percentage of animals harboring antibody titers ≥0.5UI/mL had dropped to 31% (0-80% of the animals, depending on the vaccine), resulting in lower GMT (0.1 to 0.6UI/mL). Booster vaccination at day 360 resulted in a detectable anamnestic response in all groups, resulting in 83% of animals (65 to 100%) harboring VN titers ≥0.5UI/mL thirty days later (GMT 0.6 to 4.3UI/mL). These results indicated that these vaccines were able to induce an adequate anti-RABV response in all animals after prime vaccination (and after booster as well). However, the titers decreased, reaching titers <0.5UI/mL in approximately 70% of animals within the interval before the recommended booster. Thus, booster vaccination for rabies in cattle using the current vaccines should be performed before the recommended one-year interval, as to maintain neutralizing antibodies levels in most vaccinated animals. RESUMO: A resposta sorológica contra o vírus da raiva (RABV) induzida por vacinas comerciais foi investigada em bovinos. Para isso, 84 novilhas foram vacinadas duas vezes (30 dias de intervalo) com cada vacina (G1 = 14 animais; G2 = 24; G3 = 22 e G4 = 24) e receberam uma vacinação de reforço 360 dias depois. Amostras de soro coletadas em diferentes momentos após a vacinação e após o reforço vacinal foram submetidas ao teste de vírus neutralização (VN) para detecção de anticorpos contra o RABV. Trinta dias após a segunda dose vacinal, 92% dos animais apresentaram títulos neutralizantes ≥0,5UI/mL (GMT 1,7 a 3,8UI/mL). Porém, no dia do reforço (360 dias pós-vacinação), a porcentagem de animais que ainda apresentava títulos ≥0,5UI/mL havia se reduzido a 31% dos animais (0 a 80%, dependendo da vacina), resultando em baixos TMGs (0,1 a 0,6UI/mL). A vacinação de reforço no dia 360 resultou em resposta anamnéstica em todos os grupos, resultando em 83% (65 a 100%) de animais com títulos VN ≥0,5UI/mL trinta dias após (GMT 0,6 a 4,3UI mL-1). Esses resultados indicam que as vacinas avaliadas induzem uma resposta adequada de anticorpos anti-RABV após a vacinação (e também após o reforço). No entanto, os títulos reduzem-se, atingindo níveis <0,5UI/mL em 70% dos animais durante o intervalo antes do reforço. Assim, vacinação de reforço contra a raiva em bovinos, utilizando-se as vacinas atuais, deve ser realizada em intervalo inferior a um ano, de forma a manter os níveis de anticorpos neutralizantes na maioria dos animais.

Bovine pestiviruses are members of the species Pestivirus A (bovine viral diarrhea virus 1, BVDV-1), Pestivirus B (BVDV-2) or Pestivirus H (HoBiPeV). To date, BVDV-2 isolates/strains have been classified into three subtypes (a-c) by phylogenetic analysis, and an additional subtype (d) has been proposed based on 5' untranslated region (UTR) secondary structures. In a previous study, we identified some BVDV-2 sequences in the GenBank database that could not be classified as subtype a, b or c by phylogenetic analysis of their genomes, UTRs or individual genes. Here, we performed a detailed study of these sequences and assessed whether they might represent a distinct BVDV-2 subtype. Initially, we collected 85 BVDV-2 complete/near-complete genomes (CNCGs) from GenBank and performed a “proof of equivalence” between phylogenetic analyses based on CNCGs and open reading frames (ORFs), which showed that ORFs may be reliably used as a reference target for BVDV-2 phylogeny, allowing us to increase our dataset to 139 sequences. Among these, we found seven sequences that could not be classified as BVDV-2a-c. The same was observed in the phylogenetic analysis of CNCGs and viral genes. In addition, the seven non-BVDV-2a-c sequences formed a distinct cluster in all phylogenetic trees, which we propose to term BVDV-2e. BVDV-2e also showed 44 amino acid changes compared to BVDV-2a-c, 20 of which are in well-defined positions. Importantly, an additional phylogenetic analysis including BVDV-2d and a pairwise comparison of BVDV-2e and BVDV-2d sequences also supported the difference between these subtypes. Finally, we propose the recognition of BVDV-2e as a distinct BVDV-2 subtype and encourage its inclusion in future phylogenetic analyses to understand its distribution and evolution.

Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) is the agent of a vesicular disease that affects many animal species and may be clinically confounded with foot-and-mouth disease in ruminant and swine. Horses are especially susceptible to VSV and may serve as sentinels for virus circulation. The present study investigated the presence of neutralizing antibodies against VSV Indiana III (VSIV-3) in serum samples of 3,626 horses from six states in three Brazilian regions: Southern (RS, n = 1,011), Midwest (GO/DF, n = 1,767) and Northeast (PB, PE, RN and CE, n = 848) collected between 2013 and 2014. Neutralizing antibodies against VSIV-3 (titers ≥40) were detected in 641 samples (positivity of 17.7%; CI95%:16.5-19.0%), being 317 samples from CE (87.3%; CI95%: 83.4-90.5 %); 109 from RN (65.7%; CI95%: 57.8 -72.7%); 124 from PB (45.4%; CI95%: 39.4-51.5%); 78 from GO/DF (4.4%; CI95%: 3.5-5.5%) and nine samples of RS (0.9%; CI95%: 0.4-1.7%). Several samples from the Northeast and Midwest harbored high neutralizing titers, indicating a recent exposure to the virus. In contrast, samples from RS had low titers, possibly due to a past remote exposure. Several positive samples presented neutralizing activity against other VSV serotypes (Indiana I and New Jersey), yet in lower titers, indicating the specificity of the response to VSIV-3. These results demonstrated a relatively recent circulation of VSIV-3 in northeastern Brazilian States, confirming clinical findings and demonstrating the sanitary importance of this infection. RESUMO: O vírus da estomatite vesicular (vesicular stomatitis virus, VSV) é o agente de doença vesicular que afeta várias espécies e que, em suínos e ruminantes, é clinicamente confundível com a febre aftosa. Os equinos são particularmente susceptíveis ao VSV, servindo de sentinelas para a circulação viral. O presente trabalho investigou a presença de anticorpos neutralizantes contra o VSV Indiana III (VSIV-3) em amostras de soro de 3626 equinos de seis estados das regiões Sul (RS, n=1011), Centro-oeste (GO e DF, n=1767) e Nordeste (PE, PB, RN e CE, n=848), coletadas entre 2013 e 2014. Anticorpos neutralizantes contra o VSIV-3 em títulos iguais ou superiores a 40 foram detectados em 641 amostras (17,7%; IC95%: 16,5-19,0%), sendo 317 do CE (positividade de 87,3%; IC95%: 83,4-90,5%); 109 do RN (65,7%; IC95%: 57,8-72,7%); 124 da PB (45,4%; IC95%: 39,4-51,5%); 78 de GO/DF (4,4%; IC95%: 3,5-5,5%) e em nove amostras do RS (0,9%; IC95%: 0,4-1,7%). Uma parcela das amostras dos estados do Nordeste e Centro-oeste apresentou altos títulos neutralizantes, indicando exposição recente ao vírus. Já as amostras do RS apresentaram títulos baixos de anticorpos, indicando provável exposição temporalmente remota. Quando testadas contra outros sorotipos do VSV (Indiana I e New Jersey), várias amostras apresentaram atividade neutralizante, porém em títulos muito inferiores, indicando a especificidade dos anticorpos para o VSIV-3. Esses resultados demonstram circulação relativamente recente do VSIV-3 em várias regiões do Brasil, sobretudo em estados do Nordeste, confirmando relatos clínicos e demonstrando a importância sanitária dessa infecção.