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In this paper, we provide an overview of positioning systems for moving resources in forest and fire management and review the related literature. Emphasis is placed on the accuracy and range of different localization and location-sharing methods, particularly in forested environments and in the absence of conventional cellular or internet connectivity. We then conduct a second review of literature and concepts related to several emerging, broad themes in data science, including the terms location-based services (LBS), geofences, wearable technology, activity recognition, mesh networking, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Our objective in this second review is to inform how these broader concepts, with implications for networking and analytics, may help to advance natural resource management and science in the future. Based on methods, themes, and concepts that arose in our systematic reviews, we then augmented the paper with additional literature from wildlife and fisheries management, as well as concepts from video object detection, relative positioning, and inventory-tracking that are also used as forms of localization. Based on our reviews of positioning technologies and emerging data science themes, we present a hierarchical model for collecting and sharing data in forest and fire management, and more broadly in the field of natural resources. The model reflects tradeoffs in range and bandwidth when recording, processing, and communicating large quantities of data in time and space to support resource management, science, and public safety in remote areas. In the hierarchical approach, wearable devices and other sensors typically transmit data at short distances using Bluetooth, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), or ANT wireless, and smartphones and tablets serve as intermediate data collection and processing hubs for information that can be subsequently transmitted using radio networking systems or satellite communication. Data with greater spatial and temporal complexity is typically processed incrementally at lower tiers, then fused and summarized at higher levels of incident command or resource management. Lastly, we outline several priority areas for future research to advance big data analytics in natural resources.

Human factors, including inadequate situational awareness, can contribute to fatal and near-fatal traumatic injuries in logging, which is among the most dangerous occupations in the United States. Real-time location-sharing technology may help improve situational awareness for loggers. We surveyed and interviewed professional logging contractors in Idaho to (1) characterize current perceptions of in-woods hazards and the human factors that lead to injuries; (2) understand their perspectives on using technology-based location-sharing solutions to improve safety in remote work environments; and (3) identify logging hazard scenarios that could be mitigated using location-sharing technology. We found production pressure, fatigue, and inexperience among the most-common factors contributing to logging injuries from the perspective of participants. Potential limitations of location-sharing technology identified included potential for distraction and cost. Contractors identified several situations where the technology may help improve safety, including (1) alerting workers of potential hand-faller injuries due to lack of movement; (2) helping rigging crews to maintain safe distances from yarded trees and logs during cable logging; and (3) providing a means for equipment operators to see approaching ground workers, especially in low-visibility situations.

Logging entails work in remote areas with multiple hazards and consistently ranks among the most fatal occupations in the United States. Location-sharing (LS) devices that enable users to communicate geographic positions to others have been suggested as a technological approach to improving workplace safety on logging operations. This study investigated logger intent to adopt LS-based safety practices. Employing concepts from the Theory of Planned Behavior, including intent, attitude, norms, and perceived behavioral control, we surveyed Idaho loggers at three logger training programs. We evaluated their likelihood of using LS devices on logging operations and examined factors associated with LS adoption. The results showed that Idaho loggers are likely to use (a) automatic position updates for hand fallers, (b) LS devices on all ground workers and heavy equipment, and (c) LS technology for general situational awareness. Participants also recognized specific safety benefits to LS, particularly for emergency situations, such as communicating the need for help or expediting the discovery of injured coworkers. Our findings support further development of LS technology for logging safety, particularly devices and applications that facilitate injury response for isolated workers, such as hand fallers.

Logging is one of the most hazardous occupations in the United States. Real-time positioning that uses global navigation satellite system (GNSS) technology paired with radio frequency transmission (GNSS-RF) has the potential to reduce fatal and non-fatal accidents on logging operations through the use of geofences that define safe work areas. Until recently, most geofences have been static boundaries. The aim of this study was to evaluate factors affecting mobile geofence accuracy in order to determine whether virtual safety zones around moving ground workers or equipment are a viable option for improving situational awareness on active timber sales. We evaluated the effects of walking pace, transmission interval, geofence radius, and intersection angle on geofence alert delay using a replicated field experiment. Simulation was then used to validate field results and calculate the proportion of GNSS error bearings resulting in early alerts. The interaction of geofence radius and intersection angle affected safety geofence alert delay in the field experiment. The most inaccurate alerts were negative, representing early warning. The magnitude of this effect was largest at the greatest intersection angles. Simulation analysis supported these field results and also showed that larger GNSS error corresponded to greater variability in alert delay. Increasing intersection angle resulted in a larger proportion of directional GNSS error that triggered incorrect, early warnings. Because the accuracy of geofence alerts varied greatly depending on GNSS error and angle of approach, geofencing for occupational safety is most appropriate for general situational awareness unless real-time correction methods to improve accuracy or higher quality GNSS-RF transponders are used.

Logging continues to rank among the most lethal occupations in the United States. Though the hazards associated with fatalities are well-documented and safe distances from hazards is a common theme in safety education, positional relationships between workers and hazards have not been quantified previously. Using GNSS-RF (Global Navigation Satellite System-Radio Frequency) transponders that allow real-time monitoring of personnel, we collected positioning data for rigging crew workers and three common cable logging hazards: a log loader, skyline carriage, and snag. We summarized distances between all ground workers and each hazard on three active operations and estimated the proportion of time crew occupied higher-risk areas, as represented by geofences. We then assessed the extent to which positioning error associated with different stand conditions affected perceived worker safety status by applying error sampled in a separate, controlled field experiment to the operational data. Root mean squared error was estimated at 11.08 m in mature stands and 3.37 m in clearcuts. Simulated error expected for mature stands altered safety status in six of nine treatment combinations, whereas error expected for clearcuts affected only one. Our results show that canopy-associated GNSS error affects real-time geofence safety applications when using single-constellation American Global Positioning System transponders.

Situational awareness is imperative to maintaining safe workflow conditions on logging operations. Occupational injury and fatality risks are high for loggers, especially ground crew who work alongside highly mobile hazards like heavy machinery, or work in isolated conditions where injury response may be delayed. Situational awareness may be enhanced with location-sharing (LS) technology that allows users to send GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) coordinates to others, such as coworkers at a jobsite. To evaluate the potential success of LS to improve logging safety, we assessed a) device efficacy and accuracy through operational sampling and a controlled field experiment, and b) logger acceptance and adoption of LS technology through a survey of certified, Idaho loggers. First, using real-time, military-grade LS devices at three active logging operations, we were able to characterize rigging crew positions relative to three operational hazards. Ground crew spend approximately one third of the work day in potentially dangerous areas associated with machinery and equipment and about half of each day near snags. Simulated GNSS error associated with mature stands significantly impacted definitions of safe work distances, however, indicating a need for caution when using LS for proximity awareness, especially under forest canopy. Survey results indicate loggers perceive safety benefits to employing LS devices on logging operations, especially for injury response scenarios, such as alerting coworkers of an emergency and finding injured persons quickly. Loggers indicated intent to adopt safety practices involving location sharing, which is a strong indicator of action according to the Theory of Planned Behavior. Study results encourage further development of LS applications for logging safety but advise for recommendations outlining appropriate uses.