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Much of the current understanding of pharmaceutical pollution in the aquatic environment is based on research conducted in Europe, North America and other select high-income nations. One reason for this geographic disparity of data globally is the high cost and analytical intensity of the research, limiting accessibility to necessary equipment. To reduce the impact of such disparities, we present a novel method to support large-scale monitoring campaigns of pharmaceuticals at different geographical scales. The approach employs the use of a miniaturised sampling and shipping approach with a high throughput and fully validated direct-injection High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry method for the quantification of 61 active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites in tap, surface, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influent and WWTP effluent water collected globally. A 7-day simulated shipping and sample stability assessment was undertaken demonstrating no significant degradation over the 1–3 days which is typical for global express shipping. Linearity (r2) was consistently ≥0.93 (median = 0.99 ± 0.02), relative standard deviation of intra- and inter-day repeatability and precision was <20% for 75% and 68% of the determinations made at three concentrations, respectively, and recovery from Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrometry grade water, tap water, surface water and WWTP effluent were within an acceptable range of 60–130% for 87%, 76%, 77% and 63% of determination made at three concentrations respectively. Limits of detection and quantification were determined in all validated matrices and were consistently in the ng/L level needed for environmentally relevant API research. Independent validation of method results was obtained via an interlaboratory comparison of three surface-water samples and one WWTP effluent sample collected in North Liberty, Iowa (USA). Samples used for the interlaboratory validation were analysed at the University of York Centre of Excellence in Mass Spectrometry (York, UK) and the U.S. Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory in Denver (Colorado, USA). These results document the robustness of using this method on a global scale. Such application of this method would essentially eliminate the interlaboratory analytical variability typical of such large-scale datasets where multiple methods were used.

In order to assess the environmental risk of a pharmaceutical, information is needed on the sorption of the compound to solids. Here we use a high-quality database of measured sorption coefficients, all determined following internationally recognised protocols, to evaluate models that have been proposed for estimating sorption of pharmaceuticals from chemical structure, some of which are already being used for environmental risk assessment and prioritization purposes. Our analyses demonstrate that octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) alone is not an effective predictor of ionisable pharmaceutical sorption in soils. Polyparameter models based on pharmaceutical characteristics in combination with key soil properties, such as cation exchange capacity, increase model complexity but yield an improvement in the predictive capability of soil sorption models. Nevertheless, as the models included in this analysis were only able to predict a maximum of 71% and 67% of the sorption coefficients for the compounds to within one log unit of the corresponding measured value in soils and sludge, respectively, there is a need for new models to be developed to better predict the sorption of ionisable pharmaceuticals in soil and sludge systems. The variation in sorption coefficients, even for a single pharmaceutical across different solid types, makes this an inherently difficult task, and therefore requires a broad understanding of both chemical and sorbent properties driving the sorption process.

Environmental exposure to active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) can have negative effects on the health of ecosystems and humans. While numerous studies have monitored APIs in rivers, these employ different analytical methods, measure different APIs, and have ignored many of the countries of the world. This makes it difficult to quantify the scale of the problem from a global perspective. Furthermore, comparison of the existing data, generated for different studies/regions/continents, is challenging due to the vast differences between the analytical methodologies employed. Here, we present a global-scale study of API pollution in 258 of the world’s rivers, representing the environmental influence of 471.4 million people across 137 geographic regions. Samples were obtained from 1,052 locations in 104 countries (representing all continents and 36 countries not previously studied for API contamination) and analyzed for 61 APIs. Highest cumulative API concentrations were observed in sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and South America. The most contaminated sites were in low- to middle-income countries and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and waste management infrastructure and pharmaceutical manufacturing. The most frequently detected APIs were carbamazepine, metformin, and caffeine (a compound also arising from lifestyle use), which were detected at over half of the sites monitored. Concentrations of at least one API at 25.7% of the sampling sites were greater than concentrations considered safe for aquatic organisms, or which are of concern in terms of selection for antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, pharmaceutical pollution poses a global threat to environmental and human health, as well as to delivery of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Mass produced chemicals have revolutionised the way in which humans live and has led to both a significant increase in quality of life and a concomitant change in the way we pollute our habitats. Such chemicals include pharmaceuticals, plasticisers, perfluorinated compounds and metabolites which enter rivers via sources such as sewage treatment works (STW) effluent outfalls. The presence and distribution of these contaminants is of concern due to their increasing use and ability of some to biologically affect non-target aquatic organisms at trace (ng/L) levels. This work investigated the fate and distribution of selected pharmaceuticals, plasticisers, illict drugs, perfluorinated compunds (PFCs) and metabolites are investigated in three rivers of southern England. Specific objectives included establishing spatial distribution patterns of selected contaminants along the entire course of rivers receiving inputs from multiple STWs, their partition between bound (to suspended particulate material) and dissolved phases of river water, accumulation in sediment, bioaccumulation in primary producers including plants and biofilm/ periphyton, bioaccumulation in benthic aquatic organisms, adsorption of studied contaminants to polyethlene microparticles (similar to those used in cosmetic products) both in the lab and in rivers, and adsorption to 'natural' replacements for polyethylene microparticles (MPs). Spatial distribution analysis showed that selected contaminants are ubiquitous in the studied rivers with trace levels of plasticisers and perfluorinated compounds identified in river headwaters and beyond. Within the rivers studied in this work, pharmaceuticals were shown to be exclusively introduced by STW effluent and persisted exclusively in the dissolved phase of river water through the studies areas. Plasticisers and PFCs however were additionally introduced via runoff from streets, at times at higher concentrations than in SFWs effluent outfall and bound to suspended particulate material. Only PFCs and plasticisers were found to be bioaccumulative or very bioaccumulative in aquatic plants, biofilm. periphton and benthic organisms, and accumulated in sediment. Illicit drugs were only found in STW effluent and downstream river flow, almost exclusively in the dissolved phase of collected water. Laboratory assessment of adsorption to polyethylene MPs showed adsorption largely occurred via a linear isotherm and only for PFCs. However, trace levels of pharmaceuticals and an illicit drug urinary metabolite were extracted from polyethylene MPs deployed downstream from STW effluent outfalls in three rivers. Investigation of a 'natural' alternative to polyethyle MPs (walnut husk Mps) showed adsorption to these replacement particles occurred to a greater amount with more of the studied contaminants than to polyethylene MPs. This work significantly contributes to the knowledge of organis contaminant occurrence, bioaccumulation, fate and distribution in the aquatic environment. Future research should focus on elucidating the fate and distribution of conugated pharmaceuticals and metabolites in the aquatic environment, establishing organism-specific contaminant bioaccumulation guideline, the effect of microparticle fragmentation on contaminant adsorption, identification of adsorption-free MPs for use in cosmetic products and developing study designs to incorporate environmental epigenetics with toxicology and chemistry in the aquatic environment.

Mass produced chemicals have revolutionised the way in which humans live and has led to both a significant increase in quality of life and a concomitant change in the way we pollute our habitats. Such chemicals include pharmaceuticals, plasticisers, perfluorinated compounds and metabolites which enter rivers via sources such as sewage treatment works (STW) effluent outfalls. The presence and distribution of these contaminants is of concern due to their increasing use and ability of some to biologically affect non-target aquatic organisms at trace (ng/L) levels. This work investigated the fate and distribution of selected pharmaceuticals, plasticisers, illict drugs, perfluorinated compunds (PFCs) and metabolites are investigated in three rivers of southern England. Specific objectives included establishing spatial distribution patterns of selected contaminants along the entire course of rivers receiving inputs from multiple STWs, their partition between bound (to suspended particulate material) and dissolved phases of river water, accumulation in sediment, bioaccumulation in primary producers including plants and biofilm/ periphyton, bioaccumulation in benthic aquatic organisms, adsorption of studied contaminants to polyethlene microparticles (similar to those used in cosmetic products) both in the lab and in rivers, and adsorption to 'natural' replacements for polyethylene microparticles (MPs). Spatial distribution analysis showed that selected contaminants are ubiquitous in the studied rivers with trace levels of plasticisers and perfluorinated compounds identified in river headwaters and beyond. Within the rivers studied in this work, pharmaceuticals were shown to be exclusively introduced by STW effluent and persisted exclusively in the dissolved phase of river water through the studies areas. Plasticisers and PFCs however were additionally introduced via runoff from streets, at times at higher concentrations than in SFWs effluent outfall and bound to suspended particulate material. Only PFCs and plasticisers were found to be bioaccumulative or very bioaccumulative in aquatic plants, biofilm. periphton and benthic organisms, and accumulated in sediment. Illicit drugs were only found in STW effluent and downstream river flow, almost exclusively in the dissolved phase of collected water. Laboratory assessment of adsorption to polyethylene MPs showed adsorption largely occurred via a linear isotherm and only for PFCs. However, trace levels of pharmaceuticals and an illicit drug urinary metabolite were extracted from polyethylene MPs deployed downstream from STW effluent outfalls in three rivers. Investigation of a 'natural' alternative to polyethyle MPs (walnut husk Mps) showed adsorption to these replacement particles occurred to a greater amount with more of the studied contaminants than to polyethylene MPs. This work significantly contributes to the knowledge of organis contaminant occurrence, bioaccumulation, fate and distribution in the aquatic environment. Future research should focus on elucidating the fate and distribution of conugated pharmaceuticals and metabolites in the aquatic environment, establishing organism-specific contaminant bioaccumulation guideline, the effect of microparticle fragmentation on contaminant adsorption, identification of adsorption-free MPs for use in cosmetic products and developing study designs to incorporate environmental epigenetics with toxicology and chemistry in the aquatic environment.

People with dementia have often played a passive role in the investigation of their condition. The contributors to this book look at ways of redressing the balance and involving them in the research process. They describe the skills that researchers and care staff need when seeking to validate the views of people with dementia successfully.

The Soviets have not tested a nuclear weapon now for over 12 months. According to your and the U.S.'s logic, the reliability of Soviet nuclear weapons must have deteriorated to a very serious state because it suspended its tests. This case and the fact that the United States has continued to test nuclear weapons at a regular rate leaves one to assume that the U.S. has a decided advantage over the Soviet Union in nuclear arms now.

[Reagan]'s violence to punish violence makes about as much sense as using nuclear weapons first before the other side...

The U.S.S.R. first proposed stopping nuclear explosions in 1955. In 1958 the Soviets announced a moratorium on nuclear testing that led to an agreement of a year-by-year suspension of nuclear testing by the U.S., U.K. and U.S.S.R. In 1960 France conducted four nuclear tests that led to a resumption of Soviet tests in September 1961. The U.S. followed suit two weeks later.