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Cigarette demand, or the change in cigarette consumption as a function of price, is a measure of reinforcement that is associated with level of tobacco dependence and other clinically relevant measures, but the effects of experimentally controlled income on real-world cigarette consumption have not been examined. In this study, income available for cigarette purchases was manipulated to assess the effect on cigarette demand. Tobacco-dependent cigarette smokers (n = 15) who smoked 10-40 cigarettes per day completed a series of cigarette purchasing tasks under a variety of income conditions meant to mimic different weekly cigarette budgets: $280, approximately $127, $70, or approximately $32 per week. Prices of $0.12, $0.25, $0.50, and $1.00 per cigarette were assessed in each income condition. Participants were instructed to purchase as many cigarettes as they would like for the next week and to only consume cigarettes purchased in the context of the study. One price in 1 income condition was randomly chosen to be \"real,\" and the cigarettes and the excess money in the budget for that condition were given to the participant. Results indicate that demand elasticity was negatively correlated with income. Demand intensity (consumption at low prices) was unrelated to income condition and remained high across incomes. These results indicate that the amount of income that is available for cigarette purchases has a large effect on cigarette consumption, but only at high prices.

Prospective memory refers to the ability to plan a future action that one initially inactivates, but then reactivates and completes at a later, more appropriate time. People harness the occurrence of internal (time) and external (event) cues, separately and in conjunction, to determine when this memory should be reactivated. Likewise, they selectively use the most valid cue among all that are available to determine when to reactivate the memory, and can alter the time they anticipate completing the plan if their expectations of the future environment are not realized. In three separate studies, rats were shown to not only possess prospective memory, but to also use time and event cues, and respond adaptively with some degree of flexibility when tested in novel conditions, similar to people. The rodents in these studies disengaged from an on-going task when their expectation of a more rewarding future opportunity was maximal. This decline in on-going task accuracy is a hallmark finding in the literature, and denotes, by proxy, the reallocating of attentional resources towards the reactivation and maintenance of the prospective memory. Development of this rodent model will aid in the identification of the neural mechanism underlying prospective memory, which is implicated in neurological diseases.