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Hydrogels, characterized by their high water content, tunable mechanical properties, and excellent biocompatibility, have emerged as a promising material platform for the preservation of cultural heritage. Their unique physicochemical features enable non-invasive and adaptable solutions for environmental regulation, structural stabilization, and antifungal protection. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent progress in hydrogel-based strategies specifically developed for the conservation of cultural relics, with a particular focus on antifungal performance—an essential factor in preventing biodeterioration. Current hydrogel systems, composed of natural or synthetic polymer networks integrated with antifungal agents, demonstrate the ability to suppress fungal growth, regulate humidity, alleviate mechanical stress, and ensure minimal damage to artifacts during application. This review also highlights future research directions, such as the application prospects of novel materials, including stimuli-responsive hydrogels and self-dissolving hydrogels. As an early exploration of the use of hydrogels in antifungal protection and broader cultural heritage conservation, this work is expected to promote the wider application of this emerging technology, contributing to the effective preservation and long-term transmission of cultural heritage worldwide.

In this study, we documented the impact of magnesium oxide nanoparticles (MgONPs) on the various morpho-physiological changes by root irrigation in tobacco plants in the matrix media, as well as the uptake and accumulation of the NPs over a range of concentrations (50–250 μg/mL). Our results showed that the seed germination rate was not affected following exposure to MgONPs for 5 days. Enhanced plant growth together with increased peroxidase activity (39.63 U mg−1 protein in the 250 μg/mL MgONPs treatment, 36.63 U mg−1 protein in the control), superoxide dismutase activity (30.15 U mg−1 protein compared to 26.95 U mg−1 protein in the control), and chlorophyll content (the chlorophyll a and b contents in 0 and 250 μg/mL of MgONPs were 0.21, 0.12 μg/g to 1.21, 0.67 μg/g, respectively) were observed after 30 days of MgONP treatment. However, the malondialdehyde, protein, and relative water contents did not differ significantly, indicating that the NPs in the test concentrations had no phytotoxicity and even promoted plant growth. Scanning electron microscopy and paraffin section observations indicated that the MgONPs did not affect the plant tissue structures and cells. In addition, an elevated Mg content was detected in the plant tissues exposed to MgONPs, suggesting that the Mg was taken up by the tobacco roots and translocated to the shoots and leaves, which were probably the most important tools to cause an increase in the chlorophyll content and stimulate growth. In particular, compared with the controls, a substantially higher Mg content was observed in the leaves (12.93 mg/g in the MgONPs treatment, 9.30 mg/g in the control) exposed to 250 μg/mL MgONPs, especially in the lower and middle leaves. This result confirmed that the contents of plant Mg-element in the old leaves were increased by MgONPs. In summary, this study investigated increased Mg uptake and growth stimulation, as well as the induction of various positive morpho-physiological changes to tobacco plants when exposed to MgONPs. Results elucidate the promotional impact of the NPs on plant health and their implications for agricultural safety and security.

Ralstonia solanacearum is a major plant pathogen causing bacterial wilt, whose unpredictable onset hinders timely detection and effective control. Here, we report the design, preparation and field use of a dual pH-responsive multifunctional double network (DN) hydrogel for the efficient and sustainable control of bacterial wilt. The primary network of carboxylated agarose chelates Zn 2+ and loosens under acidic conditions (pH ≤ 5) to release a pesticide (zhongshengmycin) and Zn 2+ , while the secondary L-phenylalanine (Phe)/ Zn 2+ network disassembles to provide additional bioactive components (Phe and Zn 2+ ). This dual-triggered release achieves a combined antibacterial effect, enhances plant growth, and activates plant disease resistance pathways. A simple root application protects plants for up to 14 days, and field experiments demonstrate disease control for up to 30 days, significantly preserving tomato yield. Here, we present a sustainable, effective system for managing bacterial wilt and highlight the potential of smart hydrogels in crop protection. Bacterial wilts unpredictable onset makes control difficult. Here, the authors report on a dual pH-responsive hydrogel system which releases antimicrobial agents and plant immune elicitors, L-phenylalanine and zinc, in acidic soils to enable control of bacterial wilt.

Ralstonia solanacearum (R. solanacearum)-induced bacterial wilt of the nightshade family causes a great loss in agricultural production annually. Although there has been some efficient pesticides against R. solanacearum, inaccurate pesticide releasing according to the onset time of bacterial wilt during the use of pesticides still hinders the disease management efficiency. Herein, on the basis of the soil pH change during R. solanacearum growth, and pH sensitivity of the Schiff base structure, a pH-sensitive oxidized alginate-based double-crosslinked gel was fabricated as a pesticide carrier. The gel was prepared by crosslinking oxidized sodium alginate (OSA) via adipic dihydrazide (ADH) and Ca2+. After loading tetramycin into the gel, it showed a pH-dependent pesticide releasing behavior and anti-bacterial activity against R. solanacearum. Further study also showed that the inhibition rate of the tetramycin-loaded gel was higher than that of industrial pesticide difenoconazole. This work aimed to reduce the difficulty of pesticide administration in the high incidence period of bacterial wilt and we believe it has a great application potential in nightshade production.

At present, the management of Phytophthora capsici (P. capsici) mainly relies on chemical pesticides. However, along with the resistance generated by P. capsici to these chemical pesticides, the toxicity and non-degradability of this chemical molecule may also cause serious environmental problems. Herein, a new bio-based nano-antifungal material (CNC@CTAB) was made with coating hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) on the surface of a cellulose nanocrystal (CNC). This material was then applied to the prevention of P. capcisi. This particle was facilely fabricated by mixing CTAB and sulfuric group modified CNC in an aqueous solvent. Compared to pure CTAB, the enrichment of CTAB on the CNC surface showed a better anti-oomycete activity both in vitro and in vivo. When CNC@CTAB was applied on P. capsici in vitro, the inhibition rate reached as high as 100%, while on the pepper leaf, the particle could also efficiently prevent the infection of P. capsici, and achieve a disease index as low as zero Thus, considering the high safety of CNC@CTAB in agricultural applications, and its high anti-oomycete activity against P. capsici, we believe that this CNC@CTAB has great application potential as a new green nano-fungicide in P. capsici management during the production of peppers or other vegetables.

Silver (Ag)-containing agents or materials are widely used today in plant protection for their antimicrobial activity. In view of the superior inhibitory ability of biosynthesized (aldehyde-modified sodium alginate based) silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) against plant pathogenic fungi in our previous research, here we explored the antagonistic effect of biosynthesized AgNPs on plant pathogenic bacteria and the underlying mechanism. We selected Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci , the causal agent of tobacco wildfire disease, as the target and found that 1.2 μg/mL biosynthesized AgNPs completely inhibited the growth of P. syringae pv. tabaci in vitro and in vivo by partly destroying the cell membrane structure of the pathogen, resulting in cytoplasmic leakage. Moreover, Nicotiana benthamiana treated with 1.2 μg/mL biosynthesized AgNPs exhibited a significant upregulation of nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 ( NPR1 ) and pathogenesis-related gene 2 ( PR2 ), the typical markers of the salicylic acid (SA)-mediated defense system, and an increase in peroxidase (POD) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activities as well as the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, biosynthesized AgNPs treatment increased the chlorophyll content and dry weight of N. benthamiana . Overall, we demonstrated that biosynthesized AgNPs at a low concentration have high inhibitory effect on the pathogen causing tobacco wildfire disease by destroying bacterial cell membrane and inducing defense resistance in host plant. These results lay a theoretical foundation for further application of biosynthesized AgNPs in the control of plant bacterial diseases.

In this study, benefiting from the sensitive molecular conformation transversion in azobenzene, a new strategy for fabricating alginate gels with the abilities of splicing and photo-responsive mechanical adjustment is reported. Firstly, a 4,4’-azobis(benzoylhydrazide) (Azo-hydrazide) linker was used to crosslink alginate physically via the electrostatic interaction between hydrazide groups and carboxyl groups. It was then shaped and transferred in situ to a chemically crosslinked gel via 450 nm light irradiation. Under the irradiation, the molecular conformation change of azobenzene in the linker was able to form covalent bonds at the crosslinking points of the gels. Furthermore, the reversible conformation transformation of azobenzene was able to induce the increase and decrease of the storage modulus under irradiation with 365 nm light and 450 nm light, respectively, while also providing gel-like mechanical properties, depending upon the irradiation time and given wavelength. Meanwhile, the results also indicated that active groups could contribute to the splicing ability of the gel and construct a hollow cavity structure. It is believed that this work could provide a versatile strategy for preparing photo-responsive gels with reversibly tunable mechanical properties.

The Chinese herbal medicine industry plays a crucial role globally, providing traditional remedies and significantly contributing to healthcare. Disease prevention and control in Chinese herbal medicine face unique challenges distinct from conventional plant protection methods. The distinctive requirements for disease control add complexity to disease management, necessitating specialized approaches. In this study, we developed a bio-based hydrogel (CSA-gel) using a straightforward procedure designed for the sustained release of azoxystrobin for soil disinfection with the aim of preventing fungal diseases in Chinese herbal medicine. The synthesized hydrogel was characterized using FTIR, zeta potential measurement, cryo-TEM, SEM, and elemental analysis. CSA-gel demonstrated a release duration of azoxystrobin for over 14 days, maintaining high antifungal activity throughout the entire release period. Additionally, CSA-gel exhibited the ability to release a significant quantity of calcium ions during pesticide release, fostering plant growth and enhancing plant disease resistance. The use of CSA-gel is anticipated to decrease both how often and how much pesticide is needed, highlighting the significance of our research in improving sustainable disease control in traditional Chinese herbal medicine farming.

Summary Zinc (Zn2+) is an essential micronutrient that regulates plant growth, immunity and antiviral defence mechanisms. However, its limited bioavailability often necessitates excessive application, resulting in inefficiencies in production and environmental stress. In response, we propose an environmentally friendly and sustainable approach to enhance the utilization of Zn2+. We developed CNC@PDA@Zn2+ by embedding Zn2+ into the polydopamine (PDA) coating of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs). Leveraging the high cell permeability of CNCs, this material increased the transport capacity of Zn2+ in plants and demonstrated the ability to inactivate viral particles in vitro. Moreover, CNC@PDA@Zn2+ showed a superior induction of resistance while reducing Zn2+ content, specifically by reprogramming the expression and localization of the resistance‐related non‐specific lipid transfer protein 2 (nsLTP2), which enhanced the salicylic acid (SA) signalling pathway in plants. Furthermore, the high conservation of nsLTP2 in flowering plants increases the potential application range of CNC@PDA@Zn2+. Importantly, CNC@PDA@Zn2+ represents the most effective Zn2+‐based antiviral nanomaterial to date, achieving its effects at the lowest reported Zn2+ concentration. Overall, our results highlight that CNC@PDA@Zn2+ can more effectively upregulate the conserved nsLTP2, thereby inducing viral defence responses via the SA pathway. This strategy not only improves the operation and utilization rate of Zn2+ but also reduces its environmental residues, laying a theoretical foundation for the development of antivirus defence.