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Climate change is impacting food and beverage crops around the world with implications for environmental and human well-being. While numerous studies have examined climate change effects on crop yields, relatively few studies have examined effects on crop quality (concentrations of nutrients, minerals, and secondary metabolites). This review article employs a culturally relevant beverage crop, tea ( ), as a lens to examine environmental effects linked to climate change on the directionality of crop quality. Our systematic review identified 86 articles as relevant to the review question. Findings provide evidence that shifts in seasonality, water stress, geography, light factors, altitude, herbivory and microbes, temperature, and soil factors that are linked to climate change can result in both increases and decreases up to 50% in secondary metabolites. A gap was found regarding evidence on the direct effects of carbon dioxide on tea quality, highlighting a critical research area for future study. While this systematic review provides evidence that multiple environmental parameters are impacting tea quality, the directionality and magnitude of these impacts is not clear with contradictory evidence between studies likely due to confounding factors including variation in tea variety, cultivar, specific environmental and agricultural management conditions, and differences in research methods. The environmental factors with the most consistent evidence in this systematic review were seasonality and water stress with 14 out of 18 studies (78%) demonstrating a decrease in concentrations of phenolic compounds or their bioactivity with a seasonal shift from the spring and /or first tea harvest to other seasons and seven out of 10 studies (70%) showing an increase in levels of phenolic compounds or their bioactivity with drought stress. Herbivory and soil fertility were two of the variables that showed the greatest contradictory evidence on tea quality. Both herbivory and soil fertility are variables which farmers have the greatest control over, pointing to the importance of agricultural management for climate mitigation and adaptation. The development of evidence-based management strategies and crop breeding programs for resilient cultivars are called for to mitigate climate impacts on crop quality and overall risk in agricultural and food systems.

Climate change is impacting agro-ecosystems, crops, and farmer livelihoods in communities worldwide. While it is well understood that more frequent and intense climate events in many areas are resulting in a decline in crop yields, the impact on crop quality is less acknowledged, yet it is critical for food systems that benefit both farmers and consumers through high-quality products. This study examines tea (Camellia sinensis; Theaceae), the world's most widely consumed beverage after water, as a study system to measure effects of seasonal precipitation variability on crop functional quality and associated farmer knowledge, preferences, and livelihoods. Sampling was conducted in a major tea producing area of China during an extreme drought through the onset of the East Asian Monsoon in order to capture effects of extreme climate events that are likely to become more frequent with climate change. Compared to the spring drought, tea growth during the monsoon period was up to 50% higher. Concurrently, concentrations of catechin and methylxanthine secondary metabolites, major compounds that determine tea functional quality, were up to 50% lower during the monsoon while total phenolic concentrations and antioxidant activity increased. The inverse relationship between tea growth and concentrations of individual secondary metabolites suggests a dilution effect of precipitation on tea quality. The decrease in concentrations of tea secondary metabolites was accompanied by reduced farmer preference on the basis of sensory characteristics as well as a decline of up to 50% in household income from tea sales. Farmer surveys indicate a high degree of agreement regarding climate patterns and the effects of precipitation on tea yields and quality. Extrapolating findings from this seasonal study to long-term climate scenario projections suggests that farmers and consumers face variable implications with forecasted precipitation scenarios and calls for research on management practices to facilitate climate adaptation for sustainable crop production.

Background Homegardens are in situ conservation sources of germplasm diversity for overcoming homogenous germplasm problems in industrial agricultural systems. The Wa people constitute a long-dwelling ethnic group mainly in southwestern Yunnan with a unique culture and rich knowledge of traditional vegetables. We hypothesized that traditional vegetable varieties are well conserved in Wa homegardens because Wa culture promotes the preservation of traditional vegetables. We surveyed vegetable varieties and the practices that are involved in the conservation of traditional vegetables in Wa homegardens, which could form the basis for in situ conservation. Methods The methods were used including questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Sixty homegardens were surveyed through purposive sampling in 6 Wa villages. We documented ethnobotanical information about vegetables in homegardens. Plant species were identified according to the Flora of China . And thematic analyses were conducted for in-depth interviews to identify the conservation factors for traditional vegetables. Results Fifty-two vegetable species belonging to 16 families and 41 genera were recorded from 60 Wa homegardens. Fifty-five traditional vegetable varieties and thirty-six hybrids were recorded. Among all the villages, 23 ± 6 (average ± SD) traditional vegetable varieties per homegarden and 9 ± 3 (average ± SD) introduced varieties per homegarden were recorded. Local seeds were stored in 78% of households, with an additional 9% of households’ seed supplies coming from neighbors and relatives; the other 13% of households purchased local seeds from markets. In 83% of families, the female head was mainly responsible for the decision-making concerning traditional vegetables in homegardens; in 10% of families, the male head was responsible for decision-making, and a small percentage (2%) was determined by elderly people. Five percent of families made decisions jointly between male and female household heads. Conclusions This study demonstrated that rich traditional germplasm diversity is harbored in Wa homegardens because of the unique culture and traditional knowledge of Wa communities, which are practiced daily with homegrown food plants. Local vegetable seed conservation and sharing systems help maintain germplasm diversity in the Wa community homegardens. Wa homegardens constitute a practical solution for protecting traditional germplasm diversity and maintaining traditional lifestyles.

Background The Dong people mainly live in Hunan, Guangxi and Guizhou provinces, China, with a long history of glutinous rice cultivation, among which Kam Sweet Rice (KSR) is a group of rice landraces that has been domesticated for thousands of years by the Dong people. The core distribution area of KSR is Liping, Congjiang and Rongjiang County of southeast, Guizhou Province. Paddy fields, forests, livestock and cottages have formed a special artificial wetland ecosystem in local area, and the Dong people have also formed a set of traditional farming systems of KSR for variety breeding, field management, and soil and water conservation. However, this traditional agricultural management has not been reported at multiple levels based on landraces, species and ecosystems. Methods Fieldwork was conducted in ten villages in southeast Guizhou from 2019 to 2021. A total of 229 informants were interviewed from the villages. Semi-structured and key informant interviews were administered to collect ethnoecological data on the characteristics and traditional utilization of KSR, traditional farming systems and agricultural management of the Dong people. Results (1): A total of 57 KSR landraces were recorded as used by the Dong people in southeast Guizhou. We analyzed the cultural importance index (CII) of all KSRs. KSR with high CII often has a pleasant taste, special biological characteristics of cold resistance, disease and insect resistance and high utilization in the traditional culture of Dong people. (2) There is a clear division of labor between men and women in the breeding, seed retention, field management and grain storage management of different landraces of KSR in Dong communities. In order to resist natural disasters and insect pests, the cultivation of KSR is usually managed by multi-variety mixed planting. These agricultural management modes are the result of Dong people’s understanding and adaptation to the local natural geographical environment, as well as the experience and wisdom crystallization of Dong people’s long-term practice. (3) The traditional farmland of Dong People is a typical artificial wetland ecosystem that is planted with mixed KSR landraces with rich traditional wisdom. In addition, the economic benefit of the rice–fish–duck symbiotic system was 3.07 times that of hybrid rice alone; therefore, the rice–fish–duck system not only has the function of maintaining soil, water and ecological balance but also improves the income of Dong people. Conclusion KSR is a special kind of rice that has been domesticated and cultivated by Dong people for thousands of years. Dong people have also formed traditional agriculture dominated by KSR cultivation. The traditional agricultural management of Dong people provides suitable habitats for flora and fauna with biodiversity protection, and convenient conditions for rational utilization and distribution of water resources were also provided. This traditional management mode is of great significance for environmental protection, climate change response, community resource management, sustainable utilization and agricultural transformation in modern society. Therefore, we call for interdisciplinary research in natural and social sciences, in-depth study of the ecological culture of ethnic areas, and sort out treasures conducive to the development of all mankind.

Background Ecological migration serves as an important measure for poverty eradication as well as for the protection, inheritance, and utilization of traditional ecological knowledge. This study investigated and cataloged the traditional forage plant resources and recorded the associated traditional knowledge of immigrant villages in Hongsibu District of Ningxia, China. The diversity of traditional forage plant resources and the changes in associated traditional ecological knowledge were compared among ecological immigrant villages from different emigration areas, with a hope of providing a reference for forage development, the conservation of wild forage plant resources, and the development of regional animal husbandry. Methods From March 2018 to May 2019, a field investigation was conducted in six villages in Ningxia. Through the snowball technique, a total of 315 immigrants were interviewed using various methods, including semistructured interviews and key person interviews, which included opportunities for free listing. The changes in the utilization of traditional forage plants were compared between the ecological migrants and the original inhabitants, and the causes underlying the changes were analyzed. In addition, the major forage plant species in the research area were investigated and evaluated. Results (1) The six investigated villages reported 224 traditional forage plant species that belong to 42 families and 150 genera. Compared with their original living areas, the number of traditional forage plant species used in the immigrant villages decreased with the increase in the relocation distance. (2) The utilization of traditional forage plants varied among the immigrants who moved to Hongsibu District from forest areas, loess hilly areas, and semiarid desertified areas. The smaller the difference was in ecological environment between the immigration and emigration areas, the more the traditional forage plant knowledge had been retained. (3) The diversity and associated knowledge of traditional forage plants retained by ecological migrants are closely correlated to gender, age, education level, and occupation. Conclusion This study revealed that the diversity of traditional forage plants and associated knowledge retained after migration vary among ecological immigrants from different areas; generally, the immigrants that relocated from a closer place retained more ecological knowledge. In the immigrant villages with significantly different natural resources and a long distance from the migrants’ original locations, the diversity of traditional forage plants decreased, and the traditional knowledge about forage plants showed signs of being forgotten and abandoned by the younger generation. Therefore, measures are urgently needed to document and protect the forage plant resources and preserve the traditional knowledge of ecological immigrants.

Located in Qinghai Province of China, the Three Rivers Headwaters Region is the source region of the Yangtze, Yellow and Lantsang Rivers, and plays an important role in biodiversity conservation and regulating water supply. Despite many efforts on land use change in Qinghai, knowledge of the spatial variation of land use change is still lacking. This study examines the patterns of land use change across various watersheds, prefectures and the temple surroundings. Remote sensing images of 1987, 1997 and 2007 were analyzed to derive land use distributions; patterns and structures of the landscape were then quantified with landscape metrics. The results illustrated that the Yangtze River headwater region had more diverse and more evenly distributed landscape, while the Lantsang and the Yellow headwater regions showed a decline in landscape diversity. Comparison of the land use patterns of four prefectures revealed that Yushu Prefecture experienced an increase in landscape diversity from 1987 to 2007 while the land use patches in Guoluo Prefecture exhibited more aggregated patterns than other prefectures. Analysis of the spatial variations of land use change in the temple surroundings illustrated that 19.7% and 35.9% of the temples in Guoluo and Yushu Prefectures, respectively, encountered land use change for their immediate areas within 2 km. Comparison of the surroundings of temples and human settlements found that land use change was not evenly distributed, and that greater land use change had occurred for the surroundings of human settlements. Such findings provided insights into the spatial variation of land use change in the Three Rivers Headwaters Region.

Climatic conditions affect the chemical composition of edible crops, which can impact flavor, nutrition and overall consumer preferences. To understand these effects, we sampled tea ( (L.) Kuntze) grown in different environmental conditions. Using a target/nontarget data analysis approach, we detected 564 metabolites from tea grown at two elevations in spring and summer over 3 years in two major tea-producing areas of China. Principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis show seasonal, elevational, and yearly differences in tea from Yunnan and Fujian provinces. Independent of location, higher concentrations of compounds with aromas characteristic of farmers' perceptions of high-quality tea were found in spring and high elevation teas. Yunnan teas were distinct from Fujian teas, but the effects of elevation and season were different for the two locations. Elevation was the largest source of metabolite variation in Yunnan yet had no effect in Fujian. In contrast seasonal differences were strong in both locations. Importantly, the year-to-year variation in chemistry at both locations emphasizes the importance of doing multi-year studies, and further highlights the challenge farmers face when trying to produce teas with specific flavor/health (metabolite) profiles.

Background Kam Sweet Rice (KSR) is a special kind of rice landrace that has been cultivated for thousands of years in the borders of Guizhou, Hunan, and Guangxi Provinces of China, and is mainly distributed in southeast Guizhou Province of China currently. KSR has many unique qualities, including strong resistance to diseases, pests, and adverse abiotic conditions, difficulty of threshing, and well glutinous features. KSR germplasm resources are an indispensable material and cultural symbol in the production and daily life and customs of the Dong people. Related studies showed that numerous traditional KSR varieties and cultivation area of KSR decreased sharply from the Qing dynasty to 2015, but many KSR varieties are still conserved in Dong villages of southeast Guizhou Province compared to other areas. However, the number of KSR varieties that are conserved on farms in southeast Guizhou Province and factors influencing the erosion and conservation of KSR genetic resources is unclear. Therefore, this study was an on-farm conservation investigation of KSR genetic resource in China’s major KSR producing areas—Liping, Congjiang, and Rongjiang counties in Guizhou Province and influencing factors analysis of KSR abandonment and conservation. Methods The information of KSR conservation status and variety characteristics, typical villages, Dong’s cultural customs, and factors influencing KSR abandonment and conservation was obtained using ethno-biology methods, mainly through field research interviews, including participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, focus group discussions, and cultural anthropology. The altitude, plant height, awn color and length, hull color, and rice color of 156 KSR accessions in 28 villages were recorded. The variety quantity and cultivation area of KSR were investigated in 33 ethnic villages. Questionnaire surveys were conducted in typical Dong villages to obtain local farmers’ attitudes toward cultivation and protection of KSR. We randomly selected 26 farmers from Sizhai village and 30 farmers from Huanggang village and chose 3 social characteristics including age, gender, and education levels of farmers, and adopted the method of face-to-face interviewing to complete the questionnaires. Then, we analyzed the correlation and determined the significance between farmers with different social characteristics and farmers’ attitudes to KSR development and protection using SPSS 17.0 software. Results (1) On-farm conservation status of KSR: a total of 156 KSR varieties were collected from 28 ethnic minority villages from 13 townships (accounting for 21% of three counties) in Liping, Congjiang, and Rongjiang counties. KSR accessions accounted for more than 90% of local rice varieties in each village. According to local farmers, although the quantity of KSR varieties decreased more than 50% in the investigated villages compared to the past 10–20 years, some Dong villages have still cultivated KSR, accounting for more than 50% of the rice field area in 10 villages. This result showed that many KSR varieties are still conserved by in Dong villages, and these KSR varieties have a high genetic diversity of phenotypes. (2) Typical villages investigation: the cultivation area of KSR in Congjiang was the highest, 6.7 times larger than Liping and eight times larger than Rongjiang. In addition, the cultivation area of KSR in Dong villages was larger than that in other ethnic villages, and villages that had a higher planting area of KSR had more KSR accessions. (3) Farmers’ attitude toward the development and conservation of KSR: Dong farmers hold the negative attitudes concerning the development of KSR resources, but they thought it is necessary to protect KSR landraces. Especially, a high level of education and female, young, and old farmers played more important roles in the cultivation and protection of KSR. Conclusions Until now, some Dong ethnic villages have still cultivated KSR for thousands of years in Qiandongnan area, although the number of varieties and the planting area of KSR have been greatly reduced. In addition, ethnic traditional culture and social customs were the main influencing factors of KSR conservation; economic, management, and policy factors were the main influencing factors of KSR abandonment. Through the analysis of the correlation between farmers with different social characteristics and their attitudes toward the cultivation, reasons for conservation and abandonment, development tendency, and protection of KSR, we found that a high level of education and female, young, and old farmers play more important role in the cultivation and protection of KSR. Therefore, in order to promote the protection and sustainable utilization of KSR, it is necessary to build on-farm conservation of KSR and improve the position of female farmers and the education level of young people, and encourage the old people to educate the middle-aged to conserve and protect KSR as well as Dong’s traditional culture and social customs. This study is of great significance to promote better protection and optimal utilization of KSR and enable the public, government, and related researchers pay more attention to conserving ethnic traditional cultures.

Background Xishuangbanna of Yunnan Province, southwest of China belongs to a global biodiversity and cultural hotspot. Agrobiodiversity plays an essential role in local livelihoods and traditional culture in the region. However, preliminary studies suggest that diversity of crop plants and livestock species is declining. We hypothesized that agrobiodiversity and traditional means of preserving agrobiodiversity are threatened because of changes in government policy in favor of commercial plantations, land use change and changes in traditional agricultural practices. We investigated whether or not agrobiodiversity was declining, the specific causes, and signs of active biodiversity conservation practices in ethnic minority communities of Xishuangbanna which could form the basis for extensive in situ conservation programmes. Methods A series of field studies to document trends in agrobiodiversity were conducted in different ethnic minority communities in Menghai County, Mengla County and Jinghong City of Xishuangbanna of Yunnan Province, southwest of China between July 2015 and February 2016. Data was obtained through the use of semi-structured questionnaires, field observation and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools. A total of 360 ethnic households provided information on current status, functions, characteristics, changes, and threatened factors of farming crop and livestock resources. Some measures for in situ conservation of agricultural biological resources were also researched using PRA methods. Results Two hundred twenty-six crop varieties belonging to 31 families, 71 genera and 101 species were identified in Xishuangbanna, which included 83 vegetable crops, 77 food crops, 24 spice crops, 22 fruit crops, 13 cash crops, 6 oil crops, and 1 cloth crop, respectively. There were 15 livestock varieties, belonging to 6 major species: cattle, pigs, goats, chickens, ducks, and geese. Different crop and livestock resources had their own characteristics, functions and threatened factors. Since 2002, agroecosystem, crop diversity and livestock diversity have declined greatly over the Xishuangbanna region as a whole under implementation of the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP). Swidden agriculture was completely eliminated under this program and gradually replaced by large land areas devoted to rubber, tea and banana plantations. Villager numbers engaging in farming production and population of crops and livestock were greatly decreased, particularly in terms of production of local traditional varieties. However, some in situ conservation measures such as seeds preservation, planting of traditional crops and raising livestock have played an important role in local agrobiodiversity conservation. Conclusion Abundant agricultural resources and agrobiodiversity are critical to the local livelihood and maintenance of traditional culture in Xishuangbanna. However, agrobiodiversity and related traditional culture have been greatly impacted by implementation of the SLCP since 2002. Therefore, in future conservation of agrobiodiversity, incorporating some sustainable protection measures based in local communities such as convening seed exchange fairs, conserving traditional varieties in permanent plots, making a visual documentary of indigenous cultivation, and providing traditional agricultural products to tourists should be carefully considered and adopted.

Ethnic minorities living in Guizhou Province, China, have produced numerous rice landraces that are rich in genetic variations. Studying the genetic diversity and population structure of rice landraces in Guizhou has therefore become a topic of great research interest. However, the influence of ethnic minorities and their traditional food cultures on rice landraces remains unclear. We analyzed the genetic diversity of 598 rice landraces using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Furthermore, we analyzed the nucleotide variations between two similar populations collected during two different time periods using a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotype analysis of six unlinked nuclear loci. The three major results were as follows: (1) The genetic diversity index of rice landraces in six ecologically distinct rice farming zones of Guizhou Province was high (He = 0.7721), and Southwest Guizhou, which has a large population of ethnic minorities, is the center of genetic diversity of rice landraces in the province; this region had the highest He at 0.7823 and the highest polymorphic information content (PIC) at 0.7562. (2) A neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree and a model of the population structure showed that the rice landraces from the southwest, south, and southeast of Guizhou had unique genetic structures and genetic backgrounds, which are closely related to the traditional diet cultures of the local ethnic minorities. (3) A nucleotide variation analysis of similar rice landraces collected in 1980 and 2015 revealed that, after 35 years of domestication by ethnic minorities, the original dominant haplotypes were well-preserved; the frequency of the most favorable haplotypes gradually increased to adapt to the traditional food culture. This study is expected to promote the protection and sustainable utilization of rice landraces from this unique region and to provide valuable germplasm materials and information for future rice breeding and basic research efforts.